(1) Flower have long been cultivated and bred for their beauty and their fragrance.
A B C D
答案：A
应改为：Flowers
解释：表泛指时，可数名词可用不定冠词加单数或直接用复数，因谓语是复数，故改为复数
(2) Doctor are discovering that there is a strong psychological component to chronic
A B C D
pain.
答案：A
应改为：Doctors
解释：表泛指时，可数名词用冠词加单数或直接用复数，因谓语动词是复数，故名词也用复数 作者: ask2008 时间: 2008-7-29 10:09
(1) With the incorporation of jazz history into current academic curricula, leading
A B C
jazz musicians are now founding on the faculties of several universities.
D
(2)
Like some other running birds, the sanderling lacks a back toe and has a three-toed
A B C
feet.
Ｄ
答案：D
应改为：foot
解释：feet是foot的复数形式, 不定冠词a 之后应接可数名词的单数, 故将feet 改为单数作者: ask2008 时间: 2008-7-29 10:10 标题: 词汇：
词汇：sanderling: 三趾滨鹬
考点一 否定限定词no
(1) no既可用于可数名词复数前又可用于单数前, 表示否定意义. 例如:
No flowers in the garden. 花园里没有花.
No one is here.
(2) no与否定副词not的区别是改错题的常见考点。 二者的区别在于:
no直接修饰名词, 不能与其他限定词同时出现;
not一般出现在be动词或助动词之后, a, an, any等限定词之前, 它是否定式的组成要素, 而不是名词的限定词
例题:
(1)
The mechanism by which brain cells store memories is ---- clearly understood.
(A) none
(B) no
(C) not
(D) nor
答案: C
解释: 此句主谓完整, 据选项可知空白处需填入合适的词使原句变为否定, 只有否定副词not可以和is配合构成否定句, A、B、D 之后都需要名词词组, 不符题意
(2)
Not woman held a presidential cabinet position in the United States until 1933, when
A B C
Frances Perkins became secretary of labor.
D
答案: A
应改为: No
解释: Not是否定副词应置于be动词或助动词之后, 且它与单数名词间需加冠词, 而no是形容词, 可以直接修饰后面的名词
考点二 their等物主代词作者: ask2008 时间: 2008-7-29 10:11
考点二 their等物主代词
1．物主代词是常见的名词限定词, 其后既可接可数名词的单复数(his pen, his pens)又可接不可数名词(his time), 但不可与其他的限定词同时出现(部分数词除外)， 例如：不能说no my car, my no car，但是可以说 My two red cars
2．英语中许多习惯用法在表示特指时都用物主代词而不用the, 为的是更突出所属关系，这在TOEFL中是一个常考的点
例如：Manufacutrers of consumer goods often change the styles of their products.
这里用their 而不用 the
例题:
(1)
A good exercise program helps teach people to avoid the habits that might shorten
A B C
the lives.
D
答案: D
应改为: their
解释: 定冠词the指代不清, 用物主代词their作名词lives的限定语更符合英语习惯, 还可突出lives 与people之间的所属关系
(2)
A liquid is similar to a gas because has molecules are not fixed to each other in any
A B C
specific way.
D
答案: B
应改为: its
解释: has是动词, 不能修饰名词, 且与从句的谓语冲突, 依句意改为物主代词its作molecules的限定语
考点三 只接复数名词的限定词
a (large /small /great /considerable /remarkable) number of, a variety of, a set of, a few, 等表示数的固定词组之后总是接复数名词
例题:
(1)
In mathematical terms, modern algebra is set of objects with rules for connecting or
A B C
relating those objects.
Ｄ
答案: B
应改为: is a set
解释: a set of是固定词组, 表示一套、一组, 后面接可数名词的复数, 与题中objects吻合
(2)
At birth, an infant exhibits a remarkable number of motor response.
A B C D
答案: D
应改为: responses
解释: 短语a number of 后面要求接可数名词的复数, number前可加某些形容词如great, considerable, remarkable, small 等表示a lot of 或 a few
注意 “the number of” 和 “a number of”的区别
The number of boys in Class Five is 25. (五班男孩的数目是25， 后面谓语动词用单数)
A small number of families are able to afford an apartment. (少数家庭能够买得起一套住房, )
考点一 不定冠词a / an
不定冠词a和an后面当然接单数，a和an 的主要区别是:
a 用于以辅音开头的名词前(指发音而不是拼写), 如: a tower, a university
an用于以元音开头的名词前(指发音而不是拼写), 如: an orange, an hour
例题:
(1)
How Native Americans developed corn is a puzzling, for no wild corn has ever
A B C
been discovered, and it grows only where people plant and tend it.
D
答案: B有错
应改为: puzzle.
解释: 不定冠词a应与可数名词单数连用, puzzling是分词, 不能单独与a 连用, 故改为名 词puzzle
(2)
Whether a healthy adult tends to feel hungry two, three, or four times a daily is a
A B C D
question of physiology and of culture.
答案: D有错
应改为: day
解释: 不定冠词a应与可数名词单数连用, 而daily是形容词, 不能单独与a连用, 故改为 名词day
(3)
Pewter, a metal with an ancient heritage, is still practical medium for the
A B C
nonprofessional metal worker.
Ｄ
答案: C
应改为: still a practical
解释: medium是可数名词, 在句中作表语, 其单数之前应该用不定冠词
a, an的误用是TOEFL常见的改错题型
例题:
(1)
A emotion is not necessarily aroused by something in the outside world.
A B C D
答案: A
应改为: An emotion
解释: emotion是元音开头的名词, 前面的冠词应用an
(2)
If a atom loses any of its electrons, it becomes positively charged and can combine
A B C
chemically with other atoms.
D
答案: A
应改为: an atom
解释: atom是元音开头的名词, 前面的冠词应用an
考点二 定冠词the
定冠词限定名词时主要表示特指，针对TOEFL应注意以下几点：
(1) the和可数名词单数连用，表示一类人或物，如：
the fern(蕨类), the wallflower
(2) 序数词之前必须用the，如：
the first woman, the nineteenth century
但前面有物主代词时除外，如 my first baby
(3) 形容词最高级之前必须用the(有物主代词时除外)，如：
the largest city, the most advanced technology
(4) of连接的名词前多用the, 如：
the development of the watch,
(5) 世界上独一无二的东西前应加the, 如：
the globe(地球)，the equator(赤道), the moon, the sun
在下列情况下，一般不用the：
(1) 表示人名、地名、国家名等专有名词前, 一般不加，如：
Dennis Chavez(人名)，Alaska(地名)，English(英语), February(二月), America(美国)
但是在表示海洋、海峡、江、河、山脉、群岛等专有名词时要加上the
the Great Lakes(美国五大湖)， the Changjiang River(长江)
(2) 无特指的不可数名词前，如：
algebra(代数学), advertising， accounting（会计学）
(3) 表示类别的复数名词前，如：
Historians believe that…, Amphibians(两栖动物) hatch from…
(4) 一些固定词组中，如：
in history, in nature, at work, at home , go to school, go to bed, in bed
乘车的词组：
by train(乘火车), by car (乘汽车), by bicycle(骑脚踏车), by bus (乘公共汽车),
by land(由陆路), by sea (由海路), by water (由水路) , by air (通过航空)
on foot (步行)， by plane(乘飞机)， by ship (乘船)，
打球的词组：
play tennis, play baseball, play basketball
注意：表示职位的词之前的冠词有无均可, 如：He was elected (the) chairman of the committee.
例题：
(D)
Historically, ---- chief material for making furniture has been wood, but metal and stone have also been used.
(A) it was the
(B) that the
(C) there was a
(D) the
(2)
The Yukon River, which flows into the Bering Sea, gives its name to a region of
A B
Alaska and a territory of the Canada.
C D
答案：D
应改为：of
解释：Canada是国名，属专用名词，之前不能加定冠词
(3)
The development of professional sports in the United States dates back to作者: ask2008 时间: 2008-7-29 10:11
考点一 与可数名词的显著区别
1. 不可数名词没有复数形式, 其数的表示必须通过 “数词+量词+of+不可数名词” 的结构或一些特定的限定词,
如：a sheet of steel(一片钢), a piece of furniture（一件家具），
two pieces of work（两份工作） an item of news(一条新闻)
2. 不可数名词不能直接出现在不定冠词a, an之后
不能够说：an advice(一个建议) ，而应该说 a piece of advice
例题：
(1)
Historians believe that some forms of an advertising must be as old as barter and
A B C D
trade.
答案：C
应改为：advertising
解释：advertising是不可数名词，不能加冠词
词汇：barter: 实物交易
考点二 限定词
不可数名词的限定词和不可数名词原形连用, 下面这些限定词后面一定跟不可数名词：
much, a large amount of, a great deal of, a wealth of(大量的、丰富的)
little /a little /less /least, a piece /sheet /slice /bar of, 属不可数名词专用
例题：
(1)
Because they are generally taken simply to obtain a recognizable and relatively clear
A B C
image, most nonprofessional photographs demand few equipment.
D
(2)
Data received from two spacecraft indicate that there is many evidence that huge
A B
thunderstorms are now occurring around the equator of the planet Saturn.
C D
另外一些词(词组)如such, some /any (of), most (of), a lot of, lots of, the rest of, plenty of等既可接可数名词又可接不可数名词。
例如：
a lot of students , a lot of money
the rest of the students, the rest of money
Pansies can be cultivated easily in home gardens, but they require plenty of water and not too much sun.
A B C
nineteenth century.
D
答案：D
应改为：to the nineteenth
解释：nineteenth是序数词，之前应加the作者: ask2008 时间: 2008-7-29 10:11
第五节 所有格及of结构
考点一 词尾加 's或 ' 的所有格
所谓名词所有格即表示名词之间所有关系的特殊结构, 其最普通的形式为: n. +'s,
如: my mother's coat, the headmaster's home， the president's office
如果原词结尾已有s, 则只要加 ' ,
如: the students' union, the ladies' room
例题:
(1)
It is widely believed that the pull of gravity on a falling raindrop changes ----round shape into a teardrop shape.
(A) of the drop
(B) the drop's
(C) drop of
(D) drops their
ge number of trials, the probability of an event's ---- is equal to the probability that it will not occur.
(A) occurs
(B) will occur
(C) can occur
(D) occurring
填空题中经常出现句子中缺少主语的题型, 大多数都需要填入名词或名词短语
例题:
(1)
In 1964 ----of Henry Ossawa Tanner's paintings was shown at the Smithsonian Institution.
(A) was a major collection
(B) that a major collection
(C) a collection was major
(D) a major collection
填空题中有相当一部分缺少动词宾语的题需填入名词或名词短语
例题:
(1)
In 1961 the entertainer Chubby Checker introduced a ----to New York's rock'n 'roll fans.
(A) new dance, the twist
(B) twist, was the new dance
(C) twist, the new dance that
(D) new dance is the twist
(2)
Instructors at the school of American Ballet first examine a young applicant's instep
A B
to see whether it is pliant and shows promising of a good arch.
C D
答案: D
应改为: promise.
解释: 形容词promising不能作动词show的宾语, 需改为名词
考点三 名词(词组)作同位语
同位语主要由名词词组充当, 对其前面的名词或代词作补充说明,
I came from Jiangying, a very beautiful and peaceful town.
例题:
(1)
In the nineteenth century, Samuel Gridley Howe founded the Perkins School for the Blind, ----for children in Boston, Massachusetts.
(A) that institutes
(B) while instituted
(C) was an institution
(D) an institute
(2)
Martha Graham, ----, has run her own dance company for half a century.
(A) is the great modern choreographer
(B) one of the great modern choreographers
(C) that the great modern choreographers
(D) the modern choreographers were great
注意1：大多数形容词既可以做定语也可以做表语, 有少数形容词一般情况下只能做表语, 比较下面两句话：
The man was awake.
There was an awake man. (此句错误, awake不能做定语)
这类形容词包括: alone, afraid, alike, alert, aware, alive, ashamed, content, unable
例题：
(1)
Many television newscasters make the public an eyewitness to the news by means
A B C
of on-the-spot, alive reports.
D
答案： D
应改为：live (adj. 现场的, 实况转播的)
解释：alive不能做定语, 只能做表语，所以应该改为live reports (现场报道)
(2)
Alike ethnographers, ethnohistorians make systematic observations, but they also
A B C
gather data from documentary and oral sources.
D
答案： A
应改为：like
解释：alike不能做定语, 只能做表语; alike/like 是TOEFL改错中常考的考点
注意2：形容词词组修饰名词时要发生后置现象, 避免产生头重脚轻的感觉.
如：a room bare of furniture, the form dependent of the contents等，
注意3：形容词修饰名词的语序也是TOEFL考点之一。 当多个形容词(甚至包括指示代词, 冠词和所有格)并列放置于名词之前时, 它们之间就存在着谁排在前面, 谁排在后面的问题,
一般来说：这个排序的规则是:
冠词(a, an, the)/所有格(my, your等)/指示代词(this, that等) + 数量形容词 + 描述性形容词 + 名词
如: two young American students
my three red pencils
考点一 含有标志词than
1．最常见的比较级句式是由连词than引导比较的对象，
如：It takes less time to go there by air than by train.
She possesses more books than I do.
He is more intelligent than I expected.
than可视为比较级的标志词，在填空题中，
空后含有than的， 通常空格处需要填比较级，
空格前含有比较级的，通常空格处需要填than引导的从句。
例题：
(1)
Maine has ---- weather than most of the other states in the continental United States.
(A) coolest
(B) the coolest
(C) cooler
(D) the cooler
答案：A
解释：标志词than意味着应用比较级，A, B可先排除；D多the; 只有A正确
(2)
Pennsylvania has the most institutions of higher learning than any other state has.
A B C D
答案：A
应改为：more
解释：标志词than表明此句应用比较级，而不是最高级
2．为避免重复，than之后的从句中有些成分可以省略，只把相比的部分突出出来:
情况1: 用指示代词that, those来代替省略的部分,
如：The population of China is much larger than that of Great Britain.
(that 指代the population)
His designs won more acclaim than those of his fellow colleagues.
(those 指代 designs)
情况2: 在省略的过程中，若than之后从句的谓语部分相同, 比较的是主语部分, 那么谓语部分通常用助动词do来代替, 并且习惯上将从句主语和助动词倒装 (do + 主语)
如：The actors usually capture greater attention than do the playwrights who may
probably contribute more to the success of a play.
例题：
Mammals have a larger, more well-developed brain ---- other animals.
(A) than do
(B) that are having
(C) which have
(D) that do
答案：A
解释：空格前出现了形容词比较级，空格后是比较对象，应由than连接，选项中只有A符合条件，其中由助动词do引起了一个小倒装
考点二 (not) so /as…as
比较级特殊句式(not)so/as…as 表示“如同……一样、不如……”等意思，其结构和than句式相仿，但as…as之间的形容词必须用原形，而且as…as必须搭配使用，
如：It is as good as it looks.
The boss is not so bad-tempered as you have described.
填空题中常给出句子的一部分(第一个as)，要求填出相搭配的部分(第二个as)，一定要形成对这种搭配句式的敏感。
例题：
(1)
The best way to control rats is by seeing that they have as ----.
(A) possibly little nourishment
(B) nourishment possibly little
(C) little as possible nourishment
(D) little nourishment as possible
(2)
There is evidence that prehistoric humans used fire ---- 400,000 B.C.
(A) so early
(B) the earliest
(C) as early as
(D) so early that
答案：C
解释：依句意空格处需要“早在”这一意思的正确表达，只有C符合题意，用的是比较级特殊句式as...as
考点三 the same…as
此句式也常用来表示“和……一样”，the same和as既可连用，也可分开使用，
如：She looks just the same as before.
I got the same feeling as you did.
改错题中常将此句式误用为the same…like /than, 要练就一双火眼金睛将其识别出来
例题：
(1)
Meadowlarks are about the same size than robins, but they have heavier bodies,
A B C
shorter tails, and longer bills.
D
答案：B
应改为：as.
解释：the same as是固定搭配, 表示“与．．．一样”
(2)
Due to sophisticated transportation networks, people can now buy the same types of
A B
perishable goods in Toronto like in New York City.
C D
答案：D
应改为：as
解释：与the same相搭配的只有as, like不行
考点四 the more…，the more…
此句式常表示“越……越……”，more在此处泛指比较级，此句式的特点是前后两句以逗号隔开，句子结构平行，而且谓语动词一致时，为避免重复常进行省略，
如：The more she slept, the less comfortable she felt.
The greater the size, the easier it is for you to spot.
填空题中常需填入两个分句之一，因此看到the more结构，要注意选与其结构相近的另一半the more句式
例题：
(1)
The greater the population there is in a locality, ----for water, transportation, and disposal of refuse.
(A) the greater the need there is
(B) greater need
(C) is there great need
(D) the great need
答案：A
解释：这是典型的 “the more…,
the more…” 句式, 意为 “越…, 越…” 其逗号前后两部分结构要平行, 而且后一句可以不倒装, A 完全符合要求. C D 都缺少此固定句式所要求的第二个比较级; B 少定冠词the. 此句亦可改写为: If there is greater population in a locality, there will be greater need for water, transportation, and disposal of refuse.
(2)
The less the surface of the ground yields to the weight of the body of a runner, ---- to the body.
(A) the stress it is greater
(B) greater is the stress
(C) greater stress is
(D) the greater the stress
答案：D
解释：此句涉及比较级的特殊句式the more..., the more..., 此句式要求前后结构平行，当谓语一致时，后面的可省略，符合要求的只有D
考点五 no longer /not…any longer
no longer /not…any longer和no more/not…any more都表示“不再……”,
如：He no longer smokes. / He doesn't smoke any longer.
注意no longer /not…any longer不要混用，no more /not…any more同理，这一句式在改错题中出现。
例题：
(1)
Although it is any longer the big business that it was in the forties, radio
A B
continues to be a medium of essential communication, especially at the local level.
C D
答案：A
应改为：no longer.
解释：根据句意此处应为否定“不再是 ．．．”，英文中有两种方式表达此意, no longer / not...any longer, 此句只能采用前者, 若用后者语序应为: it is not the big business that it was in the forties any longer作者: ask2008 时间: 2008-7-29 10:15
第三节 最高级
考点一 最高级的形式 一、英文中表示最的概念时，形容词要变为最高级，其形式主要有两种：
在词尾加-est (单音节形容词), 如：low-lowest, late-latest, lucky-luckiest, fit-fittest；
或在词之前加most (多音节形容词), 如：most important, most sensitive
少数词最高级形式特殊，如：good(well)-best, bad(ill)-worst, many(much)-most, little-least, etc.
TOEFL经常会出现这样的搭配： most highest, 这是不对的，hightest已经是最高级，前面当然不能在加most.
例题：
(1)
The most easiest process for mining gold is panning, which involves using a circular
A B
dish with a small pocket at the bottom.
Ｃ D
答案：A
应改为：easiest.
解释：easiest本身已是最高级, most纯属画蛇添足, 应去掉
二、没有等级的形容词
有些形容词本身就具有“比….年长”、“ 比…..优越”等含义，因此也就没有比较级和最高级。比如： inferior, superior, senior, anterior。这些形容词往往和to连用，而不和than连用。
有些形容词本身就具备“最、极”的含义，所以就没有最高级和比较级。如：
absolute(绝对的), unique(独一无二的), infinite(无限的), round(圆的), right(对的), correct(正确的), wrong(错误的), perfect(完美的)，这类形容词往往被称为绝对形容词
例题：
Geoffrey Chaucer occupies a ---- place in English literature.
(A) most unique
(B) unique
(C) least unique
(D)very unique
答案： B
考点二 最高级前的限定词
(1) 形容级做定语时, 最高级前通常要加定冠词the ，如：
the most important thing, the biggest elephant
但当最高级前有物主代词时，不需加the, 如：
my latest hobby, her most interesting experience
(2) 形容词作表语时，最高级前通常不加限定词
如：She looks happiest whenever you are around.
Excuse me, but I'm busiest at the moment.
例题：
(1)
Of all the Native Americans in the United States, the Navajos form largest group.
A B C D
答案: D
应改为: form the largest
解释: largest是最高级, 作group的定语, 之前必须加定冠词the
考点三 范围词
伴随最高级出现的往往有表示范围的词或短语，常用of 或among或 in 引导, 表示“在….之中”。 如：of all, in the world, in the country等, 在填空题的题干中包含表示范围的词时，空格处需填最高级
例题：
(1)
The Appalachian Trail, extending approximately 2, 020 miles from Maine to
A B
Georgia, is the longer continuous marked footpath in the world.
C D
答案：C
应改为：longest.
解释：本句有范围词in the world, 则定冠词the 之后应采用形容词最高级形式
考点四 most的其他用法
对于most来讲，除了构成某些词最高级外，most的用法有几点需要注意，经常成为改错题的考点：
1． 当most表示大多数时，之前不加the, 并且有两种形式来表示大多数，分别为：
most + 名词，如：most people, most Indian tribes；
most + of + 限定词 + 名词或代词，如：most of his paintings，most of us, most of the modern artists
2. most有时意思等同于very, 此时most之前用不定冠词，如：
a most lovely girl, a most impressive proposal
例题：
(1)
The most substances expand in volume when they are heated.
A B C D
答案：A
应改为：Most
解释：most只有在表示形容词最高级作定语时需加定冠词，此句表示“大多数”，没必要加the.
(2)
The most often flour is made from wheat, but it may also be made from the seeds
A B C
of other cereal plants.
D
答案：A
应改为：most.
解释：the most 一般出现在最高级中, 此句most often为固定说法,意为经常
词汇：cereal: 谷类的
the end. 作者: ask2008 时间: 2008-7-29 10:15
第三章副词
副词和形容词有着千丝万缕的联系，相当比例的副词都是形容词加后缀-ly构成的，但副词在句中的作用却与形容词有较大区别，需细心领会：副词最主要的功能是作状语，用于修饰动词、形容词、副词、介词短语、甚至整个句子，这些都是形容词不可替代的作用，但切记在TOEFL题中不可修饰名词
副词可大致分为时间副词(如：now, then, recently), 地点副词（如：here, upstairs, everywhere）, 方式副词（如：carefully, rapidly, happily）, 程度副词（如：much, quite, extremely）, 疑问副词(如：how, when, where), 承接副词（如：besides, however, therefore）等等
副词比较级和最高级的用法基本和形容词相同，形容词比较级的特殊句式同样适用于副词，稍有不同的是副词最高级前的the可用可不用，不用时居多。副词比较级和最高级作为考点的不多，但在题干中多次出现，可留心体会与形容词的区别和联系
第一节 副词修饰动词
修饰动词是副词的最主要作用之一，此处动词的含义包括谓语动词、不定式中的动词，被动式或进行时中的分词形式的动词
例如：You can't possibly arrive there on time. (谓语动词)
It's inconvenient to contact him directly. (不定式中的动词)
Her composition is frequently referred to as original. (被动式)
改错题中常误用形容词修饰动词，要注意识别
例题：
(1)
In the United States, sleds for recreation were first produced commercial in the
A B C
1870's or thereabouts.
D
答案：C
应改为：commercially
解释：形容词commercial不能修饰谓语动词produce, 需改为副词
(2)
According to anthropologists, the earliest ancestors of humans that stood upright resembled chimpanzees ----, with sloping foreheads and protruding brows.
(A) facially
(B) their faces
(C) having facial
(D) they had faces
答案：A
解释：resemble一词是本句的谓语动词, 已有了宾语chimpanzees, 之后需要的只可能是用来补充说明的非谓语, B、D可先排除; facial是形容词, 不能作have的宾语, 因此C肯定不对; A是副词, 恰好修饰动词作状语
第二节 程度副词much等
程度副词much, still, far, a little, a bit 的特殊之处在于：可用来修饰比较级，表示加强或减弱程度。 如： I'm much clearer about the situation now.
She's not a bit more rational than you were.
注意：much不能加形容词原形代替比较级
比如想说更有耐心：不能够说much patient, 而应该说more patient；
同时more也不能替代much修饰比较级，
比如要说低得多：不能说more lower , 而应该说much lower;
例句：She is far better than me at English. ( 在英语方面她比我好的多)
例题：
(1)
Watercolors dry more faster than other paints.
A B C D
答案：C
应改为：much faster
解释：比较级more不能修饰比较级faster, 应改为程度副词much
(2)
Reptiles are widely distributed all over the world, but are much abundant in warm
A B
regions and are virtually absent beyond the treeline in the Arctic.
C D
答案：B
应改为：more.
解释：much作为形容词不能修饰另一个形容词, 而作副词时只能修饰形容词比较级, 如much better, much more expensive, 依句意是要将爬行动物在温带地区和寒带地区的分布加以对比, 因此改为比较级more abundant
(3)
Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the crust of the Earth, but the nonmetals
A B C
oxygen and silicon are more still abundant.
D
考点：程度副词
答案：D
应改为：still more
解释：程度副词still修饰比较级more时，应置于其前,
词汇：crust: 地壳 silicon: 硅
(4)
A goose's neck is a tiny longer than that of a duck and not so gracefully curved as a
A B C D
swan's.
考点：程度副词
答案：A
应改为：little
解释：形容词tiny不能修饰比较级longer, 应改用程度副词a little
词汇：gracefully: 优雅地， swan: 天鹅
第三节 副词在句中的位置
副词在句中的位置比较灵活，放在句首、句中、句尾都有可能，这是副词的优点，但同时给英语学习者带来了麻烦，往往难以抉择副词的位置，TOEFL出题者也借此大做文章，给考生制造障碍，在填空题、改错题中都涉及语序问题 作者: ask2008 时间: 2008-7-29 10:16
几点参考规则：
1. 多数副词放在修饰的动词之后，若动词有宾语则放在宾语之后，如：
She sings very well.
I met your uncle(动词的宾语) just now.
I met just now your uncle (错)
2. 副词修饰形容词、介词短语、副词时常放在被修饰成分之前，如：
These two are only slightly different.
right after this, very smoothly
当然，副词enough是一个例外，要放在修饰成分的后面，如：
I am not good enough to do this job. (对)
I am not enough good to do this job. (错)
3. 表示频率的副词常放在实意动词之前，be动词之后，如：
He often/ always/ rarely/seldom/never play(实意动词) tennis.
He is always here at 8'clock. (be动词之后)
4. 部分副词的位置没有一定的规定，原则上接近被修饰词即可，如：
only, even, still, perhaps, etc.
例题：
(1)
When rainbows appear, they are always in the part of the sky opposite directly the
A B C D
Sun.
答案：D
应改为：directly opposite.
解释：opposite 与the Sun 构成介宾短语, 修饰副词directly必须置于opposite之前
(2)
Amoebas are ---- small to be seen without a microscope.
(A) far too
(B) far and
(C) so far
(D) as far as
答案：A
解释：空格前是句子的主谓语，空格处需要small的修饰语，B, C, D都不能修饰形容词, 故选A, 由副词too修饰small，副词far用来加深程度
第四节 容易混淆的词
hard (努力，副词) －hardly （几乎不，副词）
close （接近，形容词） －closely（接近，副词）
near （接近，形容词） －nearly （几乎，副词）， nearby (adj.邻近的)
most （大多数的，形容词） －mostly（主要地，大部分 副词）
late （迟、晚，形容词） －lately （最近，副词），later(adv.稍后的)
high (高的，形容词) －highly (adv. 非常，大大的)
常用介词包括简单的，
如：in, on, at, from, to, like, of, for, after, before, by, with, to, since, between, etc.；
还有一些组合的，如：into, onto, out of, throughout, within, upon, etc.
这些词的具体用法需要下功夫搞清，在TOEFL题中都有所体现。
例题：
(1)
----one time, Manchester, New Hampshire, was the home of the most productive cotton mills in the world.
(A) On
(B) At
(C) By
(D) To
答案：B
解释：据选项可知需填介词，词组at one time意为“曾经、一度”，符合句意。
(2)
Saint Elmo's fire is a luminous blue discharge of electricity sometimes seen when a
A B C D
thunderstorm.
在改错题目中，经常会出现混淆及物动词和不及物动词，
(1) 不及物动词后面必须要加上介词，比如go Guangzhou（到广州去），这样表达是不对的，必须改为 go to Guangzhou
(2) 而及物动词后面不能随意加上介词，因为及物动词后面可以直接接名词
比如 find the mistake (寻找错误) ， 不应该说 find for the mistake
例题：
(1)
What makes for human skeleton hard and strong is the presence of the metallic
A B C D
element calcium.
答案：A
应改为：human
解释：make是及物动词，直接加宾语，for是多余的
词汇：skeleton: 骨骼, metallic: 金属的, calcium: 钙
(2)
The situation comedy has proved to a remarkably durable commercial television
A B C D
format.
答案：B
应改为：to be a / a.
解释：及物动词prove可直接加名词或不定式作宾语
词汇：situation comedy: 情景喜剧, durable: 持久的, format: 形式
考点一 名词作介词宾语
大部分介词的宾语都是由名词(包括代词)充当的，如：under the tree, during the day, 这一考点在题中多次出现
例题：
(1)
The development of mechanical timepieces spurred the search for ----with which to regulate them.
(A) more accurate than sundials
(B) more accurate sundials
(C) sundials more accurately
(D) more accurately than sundials
(2)
Different species of octopuses may measure anywhere from two inches to over thirty
A B C
feet in long.
答案：D
应改为：in length.
解释：long 是形容词, 不能单独接在介词之后, 其名词形式length与in构成介宾短语, 表示长度
考点二 动名词作介词宾语
名词作宾语时，之后不能再接宾语，这一缺陷可由动名词弥补。
如：before doing the job , after getting back
改错题中常把应该用动名词作宾语的地方误用为名词或不定式，需留心陷阱
例题：
(1)
The Conestoga wagon, used for to carry heavy loads over long distances, originated
A B C
around 1725 in a region of Pennsylvania occupied by the Conestoga Indians.
D
答案：A
应改为：carrying.
解释：不定式不能作for的宾语, 改为动名词即可
(2)
Copper sulfate, spread in judicious amounts, kills algae ----harming fish or aquatic invert-ebrates.
(A) does not
(B) but does no
(C) except
(D) without
答案：D
解释：harming 是动名词形式, 因此要求前面的词是介词或可接动名词的动词. A B 可首先排除; C 虽是介词, 但与句意不符.
(3) Mary Ann Hardy was known for her skill to paint miniature watercolor portraits
A B C
on ivory.
Ｄ
答案：B
应改为：in painting
解释：后置定语修饰名词，什么方面的技能，不能用不定式。
考点三 连接从句或不定式
介词之后还可以接宾语从句或不定式短语，但要借助于
连接代词 (如：what , which, whom)
或连接副词 (如：how, when，where)
例句： I knew nothing about how he got the green card.
She's pretty hesitant about which one to choose.
例题：
(1)
The Cubists were concerned with how----a given subject from different points of view simultaneously.
(A) represented
(B) do they represent
(C) to represent
(D) representing
答案：C
解释：介词with后面的宾语不完整, C 是不定式短语作宾语. A D都不足以和how构成宾语从句; B不应用疑问句语序, 若去掉do则是正确的
(2)
The scholarly interest in perception stems largely from questions about the sources and validity of what ----.
(A) it is known as human knowledge
(B) is known as human knowledge
(C) known human knowledge
(D) is human knowledge known
答案：B
解释：介词of的宾语残缺, B 构成宾语从句, 包含短语be known as；A多主语it; C 无法与what契合; D 语序错误
注意：介词后面不能够接 that 所引导的从句，除非in that连起来作为特殊的状语从句引导词，表原因
(3) (Exer1_21_31)
Soprano Julia Migenes-Johnson believes in that her Latin American background
A B
helped her interpret the role of the Spanish character Carmen in a 1984 opera film.
Ｃ D
答案： A
应改为：believes
解释：介词后面一般不能够接that 引导的从句。除非in that连起来
(4)
Hovercraft, or air-cushion vehicles, are unusual ---- travel over land and water on a layer of air .
(A) they
(B) in they
(C) that they
(D) in that they
一、常搭配使用的介词和介词短语
1. from…to /till /until
2. because of, on account of (由于), by means of, in front of, in spite of (=despite),
instead of, in honour of (为纪念，为庆祝)，in danger of (在….危险之中)
3. according to, due to, with regard to, prior to, owing to, , in relation to,
in response to, to a great extent, in addition to(=besides)
4. together with, along with, in connection with, in comparison with, apart from
二、与on /upon搭配
1. act on, rely on, depend on, feed on, comment on, concentrate on, rest on, in
2. be based on, be keen on, be dependent on
The boy is keen on mathematics. (这个男孩对数学感兴趣)
三、与of搭配
1. think of , consist of, take charge of
2. be composed of, be made up of, be capable of, be typical of,
regardless of, bare of, be deprived of
3. the use of, the ratio of…to, a minimum of
四、与with搭配
1. deal with, interfere with, compare with /to, share with, join with
2. be familiar with, familiarity with, be credited with, be associated with,
be concerned with, be filled with, be infused with, be consistent with
五、与in搭配
1. result in /from, succeed in, lie in, specialize in, originate in /from, live in, believe in
2. be interested in, be found in, be rich in, be involved in
六、与for搭配
1. account for, substitute for, look for, search for, run for (竞选), ask for
2. be suited for, be responsible for, be famous /known /noted for(因…..而著名)
be valuable for, be appreciated for
七、与to搭配
1. belong to, lead to, refer to, relate to, devote to, adapt to, adjust to, dedicate to, commit to,
owe to, do harm to, lead to, date back to, give way to, contribute to
2. be resistant to, be similar to, be equal to, be sensitive to, be subject to, be close to,
be native to, contrary to, be adapted to, be destined to (注定)
八、其他
1. range from…to, benefit from, distinguish…from , derive from, stem from,
break away from, protect from, prevent from, prohibit from, shield from
2. serve as, regard as, consider as, describe as, remember as, be known as,
3. transform…into, convert…into, change…into, divide…into,
4. rank among
例题：
(1)
The young of most bird species are totally dependence on parental care after
A B C
hatching.
D
答案：B
应改为：dependent.
解释：be dependent on是固定词组, 意同depend on
(2)
Mary Cassatt specialized ----mothers with their children.
(A) painted
(B) who painted
(C) paintings
(D) in painting
答案：D
解释：此句涉及动词词组specialize in doing ,表示专门从事某事。A 与原句谓语冲突;B定语从句无先行词；C与空前后的成分都无法连接
the end.
part 2 of 2 / [1] [2]作者: ask2008 时间: 2008-7-29 10:17
1. 作宾语：不定式多接在谓语动词后作宾语
如：He decided to put in a good word for me at the meeting.
I didn't expect to hear from you so soon.
常用的可接不定式宾语的动词有：decide, expect, determine, offer, forget, remember, want, prefer, wish, hope, continue, begin, attempt, agree, etc.
例：Human beings are social animals who usually prefer not to live in physical or psychological isolation.
2. 作主语：不定式短语可作主语
如：To see is to believe (百闻不如一见)
To work hard should be your major concern.
注意：由于英文不习惯句子主语过长，不定式主语常被形式主语it所代替(详见第十七章)
例如上面第二句可以变为： It should be your major concern to work hard.
又如： It is very nice of you to help me.
It is hard for you to carry this heavy box.
3. 作表语：当句子的主语是purpose, aim, duty, goal, hope, plan, suggestion, idea, intention, problem, mistake, reaction等表示“意图”、“目的”、“功能”等意思的词时，一般由不定式作表语
如：His only purpose in life is to seek truth.
Our plan was to raise money for the new project.
例题：
(1)
Before the invention of the clock, people had to reliable on the celestial bodies to
A B C
tell time.
Ｄ
答案：C
应改为：rely.
解释：此处to是构成不定式的标志词, 之后应接动词原形
(2)
Chinese immigrants began ---- to the United States in large numbers in the middle of the nineteenth century.
(A) come
(B) to come
(C) to have come
(D) have come
(3)
The central purpose of management is for making every action or decision help
A B
achieve a carefully chosen goal.
Ｃ Ｄ
答案：A
应改为：to make
解释：主语purpose决定应用不定式作表语，故改为to make
考点二 不定式作定语
不定式常接在名词之后作定语，如：
something to read, nothing to do, anything to declare,
a lot to complain of, the right person to talk to, etc.
由上述例子不难看出不定式和被修饰词间有动宾关系，因此不及物动词之后必须加上相搭配的介词（例如上面的complain + of, talk +to）
不定式定语还可表示将来的含义，如：in the years to follow, the meeting to be held in June
针对TOEFL解题需注意下列情况：
1. 由序数词修饰的名词之后多用不定式作定语，
如：the first one to arrive, the last to mention, the only thing to talk about
例句：Not only was the Mariner spacecraft the first to fly beyond Mars, but it also survived in space well past its expected lifetime of twenty-one months.
2. 改错题常出现名词之后直接接动词，且二者间不是主谓关系而是动宾关系，此处必定有错，应在动词前加to，变为不定式作定语
如：Do you have anything declare (错)
Do you have anything to declare (对) （你有什么东西需要申报的吗？)
3. 少量题中出现了类似定语从句的不定式作定语，其基本形式为：介词+关系代词+不定式，如：Here is a blue pen, with which to fill out the form.
例题
(1)
An innovator, ballerina Augusta Maywood was ---- a traveling company.
(A) to form the first
(B) the first to form
(C) who formed the first
(D) forming the first
答案：B
解释：空格前是句子的主谓语, 空格处需要was的表语, first不能和a连用, 故A、C、D肯定不对; B中the first作表语, 省略了后面的person, 不定式to form…作定语, the first to do是常见用法, 表示第一个做某事的人
考点三 不定式作状语
不定式作状语是相当普遍的语法现象，通常表示目的、结果或原因
如：I got an early morning to catch the first train to London. (表目的)
She raised the lid only to find an empty bottle. (表结果)
He trembled to think of his shameful failure. (表原因)
TOEFL种主要涉及第一种用法
例题：
(1)
Using their bills as needles, tailorbirds sew large leaves together with plant fiber
A B C
to forming their nests.
Ｄ
答案：D
应改为：to form
解释：to是不定式的标志词，应接动词原形作目的状语
(2)
The dromedary camel is raised especially to racing.
A B C D
1．有部分动词的习惯用法要求采用不定式复合结构，其基本形式为：动词+宾语+不定式，
如：enable him to dance, cause the little girl to cry,
consider it to be a great honor, imagine herself to a soprano
常接不定式复合结构的词有：allow, enable, cause, ask, expect, invite, advise, permit, oblige, help, encourage, persuade, instruct, command, urge, consider, believe, declare, etc.
注意：help既可以接不定式，也可以接动词原形（或称不带to的不定式），
如：help him to clean the lab, help me do the housework
例题：
(1)
The flexibility of film allows the artist ----unbridled imagination to the animation of cartoon characters.
(A) to bring
(B) bringing
(C) is brought
(D) brings
答案：A
解释：allow somebody to do sth.属于固定动词词组搭配,
若allow之后无宾语则用allow doing 的形式。
例: Mum doesn't allow me to eat too much chocolate.
Sorry, sir, but we don't allow smoking here.
(2)
A dictionary allows quick access to the meaning of a word only if one knows how
A B C D
spell the word.
答案：D
应改为：how to spell
解释：how和spell不能连用，应变为不定式复合结构，加上to, 构成know的宾语
2. 在一些表示“意图”、“目的”、“倾向”等意思的动词、形容词后面经常要跟不定式，而表示同样意思的名词后面经常需要用不定式做定语
例句：
Having lost the election, the presidential candidate intend to support the opposition despite the objections of his staff.
Many modern photographers attempt to manipulate elements of photography other than light in their photographs.
这样的动词还有tend, plan, expect, endeavor, try, wish等
He is anxious to go home.
part 1 of 4 / [1] [2] [3] [4]
I am inclinded to work in Shanghai.
这样的形容词还有able, apt, eager, glad, ready, likely等
A loan may be acknowledged by a bond , a promissory note, or a mere promise to repay.
He has the inclination to grow fat.
这样的名词还有ablility , effort , attempt, anxiety,determination, inclination, plan 等
例题：
(1)
Billie Holiday's reputation as a great jazz-blues singer rests on her ability ----emotional depth to her songs.
(A) be giving
(B) are given
(C) being given
(D) to give
答案：D
解释：此句主谓俱全, 主语reputation, 谓语rests on, 缺少宾语ability的修饰成分. 根据谓语唯一原则可首先排除A B； C是被动式, 后面不能有宾语, 亦可排除; D为不定式作定语, the ability to do即做某事的能力
第二节 分词
分词是动词的又一种非谓语形式，主要分为现在分词（ing为词尾）和过去分词（主要以ed结尾），他们在句中可作定语、状语或表语。
由于作表语的分词往往被视为形容词的用法，其用法比较简单，这里只着重介绍前两种用法如：
exciting news (激动人心的消息), charming girl(迷人的女孩),
promising work(有希望的作品), known criminal(臭名昭著的罪犯),
broken bottle（破碎的瓶子）
考点一 现在分词
现在分词和过去分词的主要区别在于：现在分词表主动意义；过去分词表被动意义。
现在分词较过去分词形式灵活，除部分能接宾语之外，可有被动形式(being done)和完成式(having done, having been done), 当然being done和having been done也可理解成过去分词变形为进行式
1. 现在分词作定语
现在分词常接在名词之后作定语，经常可与定语从句替换
如：the man sitting behind me, 相当于：the man who is sitting behind me
the kids running about in the garden, 相当于：
the kids who are running about in the garden
单个的分词作定语可放在被修饰词之前，如：the sleeping baby, a running nose
改错题中若出现名词之后直接接动词，且之间是主谓关系，但不是句子主谓语，此处必定有错，可改为现在分词作定语
例题：
(1)
The boiled point of any liquid is determined by the pressure of the surrounding gases.
A B C D
(2)
The slide rule uses sliding scales with marks ---- numbers and their logarithms.
(A) representing
(B) represented
(C) are represented
(D) they are representing
2. 现在分词作状语
分词还可在句中作状语，可放在句首、句中或句尾。现在分词作状语时，通常都表示主语正在进行的动作/伴随动作或者表示原因。
1．现在分词短语可以作时间状语，相当于when, while, as soon as等所引导的从句
如：Hearing the news, he couldn't help crying.
= When he heard the news, he couldn't help crying.
2．现在分词短语也可以表示原因，代替由since, as等所引导的从句
如：Not knowing what to do about the situation, she turned to him for help.
=Since she didn't know what to do about the situation, she turned to him for help.
Being so poor in those days, we couldn't afford to go to school.
=As we were so poor in those days, we couldn't afford to go to school.
3．如果分词表示的动作发生在主句动作之前，那么此时分词就需要用完成形式
如：Having finished the work, she went to the park.
=After she had finished the work, she went to the park.
特别注意：分词状语的逻辑主语和句子的主语要保持一致
如: Seeing from the moutain, the ocean is emrald green.
此句是一个错误的句子, 因为根据分词状语的逻辑主语和句子的主语要保持一致的原则, seeing的逻辑主语也应该是the ocean, 而the ocean是不能自己seeing的, 应改为Seen from the mountain.
例题：
(1)
Snow aids farmers by keeping heat in the lower ground levels, thereby ---- from freezing.
(A) to save the seeds
(B) saving the seeds
(C) which saves the seeds
(D) the seeds saved
1. 过去分词作定语
与现在分词类似，过去分词作定语常可和定语从句替换, 通常表示被动的含义.
如：a theory derived from rich experience
= a theory that has been derived from rich experience
a gas composed of four chemical elements
= a gas that is composed of four chemical elements
改错题中常考现在分词和过去分词的混用，关键看被修饰词和分词代表的动作是主动还是被动关系。
例如: boiling water (沸腾的水，表示正在沸腾)； boiled water(开水， 表示已经烧开)
2. 同源现在分词和过去分词做定语的区别
有时一个动词词尾分别加上-ing和-ed就构成了一组同源现在分词和过去分词, 这样的例子在英语里很多, 如: interesting/interested, exciting/excited, disappointing/disappointed等, 这些由动词变化而来的分词已经被人们视为形容词了. 但是, 同源现在分词和过去分词做定语时有什么区别呢?
现在分词通常表示某个事物的特性, 通常用来修饰某事或某物, 含有“使人(令人)感到…”的意思, 如: an interesting novel, a confusing question等;
过去分词通常表示人的感受或状态, 意思是“…的…”, 如: a worried look (焦虑的神情)
试比较: an interesting boy (一个有趣的男孩 - 让人觉得很有趣)
an interested boy (一个产生了兴趣的男孩
同样, 当同源现在分词和过去分词做表语时, 在意思上也存在同样的区别, 如:
The results are very disappointing. (结果很让人失望)
We are very disappointed at the results. (我们对这样的结果很失望)
例题：
(1)
The University of Georgia, ----in 1785, was the first state supported university in the United States.
(A) chartered
(B) was chartered
(C) it was chartered
(D) to be chartered
答案：A
解释：本句主谓结构完整, 缺少的是主语的修饰成分, A构成过去分词短语作定语；B C 的动词结构与原句谓语冲突; D 不定式一般表示即将发生的动作, 与in 1785不符
(2)
A patent gives inventors exclusive rights to their inventions for a fix period of time.
A B C D
(3)
Closed plane figures like the square or the equilateral triangle can be grouped into a class ----polygons.
(A) called
(B) to call
(C) is called
(D) call as
答案：A
解释：此句主谓完整, 句中又无连词, 需填的只可能是非谓语成分, A 是过去分词短语作定语, 等效于which is called, 符合题意. C D 属谓语结构, 与原句谓语冲突; B 不定式表用途或目的, 意思不通
3. 过去分词作状语
过去分词也可放在句首、句中、句尾作句子的状语，常表示事件发生的背景或原因，
如：Seen from far away, the islands look like a chain of pearls in the midst of the lake.
De
feated in the final, the team gathered to analyze its technical disadvantages.
特别注意：分词状语的逻辑主语和句子的主语要保持一致. 选择题中, 经常要求考生在分词状语部分填入合适的过去分词或现在分词. 到底选择哪种分词, 考生可以采取这样的作题方法: 首先根据“分词状语的逻辑主语和句子的主语要保持一致”的原则确定状语部分的主语, 再判断这个主语和分词是什么关系, 若是主动关系则应该用现在分词, 若是被动关系则要用过去分词.
例题：
(1)
---- in 1635, the Boston Latin School is the oldest public school in the United States.
(A) Founded
(B) Founding
(C) To found
(D) Having founded
答案：A
解释：分词部分的逻辑主语也应当是the Boston Latin School, 它和found之间是被动关系, 所以空格处应填入过去分词
(2)
Almost destroy by fire in 1814, the White House was rebuilt and enlarged over
A B C
the next three year.
D
答案：A
应改为：Almost destroyed
解释：by是被动式的标志词, 动词destroy应用过去分词destroyed, 这样既表被动又构成句子的状语
考点三 独立主格结构
独立主格结构是介于分词和主谓句之间的非谓语形式，对于分词来讲其逻辑主语必须和句子的主语保持一致，而独立主格则在很大程度上克服了这一局限性
1、主要特征
(1) 独立主格是含有主语的分词结构，分词与主语间是主谓关系，
基本形式为：主语+现在分词或过去分词
如：his heart bleeding
the baby crying
the project completed
The school being over, the street was full of the students.
= When the school was over, the street was full of the students.
(2)切记独立主格不等同于主谓结构，
比较：my mind wandering (独立主格)；
My mind was wandering (主谓结构)
(3)独立主格的主语和句子主语不一致
如：(With) His mouth filled with water, he couldn't utter a word. (独立主格)
对于分词来讲其逻辑主语必须和句子的主语保持一致:
Filling his mouth with water, he couldn't utter a word.
2. 在句子中的作用
独立主格结构通常在句中表示时间、条件，原因、伴随状态等
如：The film being over, we had a stroll on the nearby street. (时间)
Weather permitting, I will go fishing with my family. (条件)
Time pressing, they had to work overtime. (原因)
The leaves rustling in the breeze, I roamed on the country road. (伴随)
例题：
(1)
----modern offices becoming more mechanized, designers are attempting to personalize them with warmer, less severe interiors.
(A) If
(B) But
(C) With
(D)Once
答案：C
解释：句中主干完整, 主语是designers, 谓语是are attempting, 之后是不定式构成的宾语. 空白后 becoming 采取分词形式, modern offices是becoming的逻辑主语, 因此可确定需填入的词会与原句构成独立主格结构, 而不是从句, A B D可一次性排除, 其实此句除去空白处, 已是完整的句子, 类似句子如: The man entered the room, his hair flying in the air.
注意: 表示伴随状态的独立主格结构通常可以由with引导, 如本例题.
考点一 动名词作宾语
1． 许多动词不能接不定式作宾语，同时又需要动宾结构作宾语，此时动名词便可大显身手了，如：enjoy singing（喜欢唱歌）,
avoid looking me in the eye
miss crashing into the tree
Fancy meeting you here! (想不到在这里见到你了)
常接动名词doing做宾语的动词有：
enjoy, mind, delay, avoid, consider, deny, miss, escape, fancy, suggest, insist等
另外, 在一些固定用法当中, 也需要用动名词做宾语, 如:
can't help doing, it's no use doing, it's worth doing, be busy doing, feel like doing等.
2. 有的动词既可以用动名词作宾语，也可以用不定式，两者意思区别不大, 如: like, begin, start, love, learn等,
如: She began playing piano when she was five.
She began to play piano when she was five.
但是对于remember, forget, try等动词来说，接不定式和接动名词意义不同, 如:
How many people remember listening to the radio broadcast, "The War of the Worlds"
(还有多少人记得听过无线广播-- The War of the Worlds) (表示已经听过了)
I remember to listen to the radio broadcast, "The War of the Worlds"
(我想起来要听广播-- The War of the Worlds) (表示还没有听过)
We must try to work this problem out. (我们必须尽力把这道题做出来)（表示努力，设法）
We can try doing it. (我们可以试着做它) （表示尝试）
动名词作介词宾语的情况更加普遍，详见第四章介词-介宾短语
例题：
(1)
A mortgage enables a person to buy property without paying for it outright; thus more
A B C
people are able to enjoy to own a house.
D
和名词相仿，动名词可作句子的主语、表语或名词的定语
如：Meeting you is my pleasure.
His job is driving a bus.
The opening ceremony will begin in five minutes.
在简单句中, 只能有一个主语和一个谓语, 考试时经常会出现在一个简单句中主语部分不全或干脆没有主语部分, 需要考生将句子补全, 这时要注意的是主语部分只能是名词短语, 动名词短语或不定式短语, 而不能是动词短语或句子, 如:
例题：
(1)
---- by transferring the blame to others is often called scapegoating.
(A) Eliminate problems
(B) The eliminated problems
(C) Eliminating problems
(D) Problems are eliminated
注意：有时需要在动名词之前加上物主代词或名词，表示动名词的逻辑主语
如： Would you mind my turning off the radio?
I'm rather disappointed at Helen's putting on airs at the party.
She remembered Tom owing her ten dollars.
此语法点题目中较少涉及，但有助于读懂题干
第四节 助动词
助动词没有独立的语义，主要作用是协助谓语动词表示时态、语态或构成疑问式、否定式等
助动词和情态动词的共同特点是需要和其他动词搭配使用才有意义，而且句子的否定式和疑问式都可通过这两类词体现
一、have/has (现在完成时), had (过去完成时)
这组助动词主要用来构成完成时态，形式为：have /has /had + 过去分词
如：I haven't seen you for ages.
She had mentioned this before.
二、be
be本身可作谓语动词，但在进行时中它是助动词，与现在分词搭配使用，缺一不可
如：She's watching a football match.
He's looking for his favorite pet.
此外，be和过去分词搭配构成被动语态
如：The vicar was killed in a car accident.
三、do/does (一般现在时), did (一般过去时)
此组助动词用于构成疑问式或否定式
如：He doesn't feel like smoking at the moment.
Did you meet the manager this morning?
四、will, shall, would
此组助动词用于构成将来时
如：He won't be able to see you until an hour later.
Mary promised she would pay you a visit soon.
例题：
(1)
The colors of a rainbow ---- arranged in the same order.
(A) which are always
(B) and they are always
(C) always
(D) are always
第五节 情态动词
情态动词有表示能够、愿意、请求等多种意思，比助动词用法要相对复杂些，TOEFL考试中，首先要记住语法上的要点，即情态动词之后必须接动词原形
常见情态动词有：
must, may, might, can, could, need, shall, should, ought to, will, would, dare, dared
情态动词表示现在对过去发生的事的猜测、想法时应该用 (情态动词 + 完成时动词），表示“应当已经 / 一直……”，“想必已经 / 一直……”。使用不同的情态动词，存在着语气、意思上的区别。
must + 完成时动词：表示对过去事情的肯定性推测，意思为“一定”，“必定”。
It's ten o'clock now, they must have arrive in Beijing.
（现在10点了，他们肯定已经到了北京。）
He is quite tired, he must have been overworking last night.
（他太累了，准是昨晚加班了。）
may/might /can/could + 完成时动词
(1) 均表示不肯定的推测，注意与must 肯定语气的比较。
He is so depressed, I'm afraid that he might have failed in the test.
（他心情这么沮丧，恐怕考试没有过。）
(2) 另外表示责备“本来可以（而竟没有）之意。
(3)注意cannot / couldn't + 完成时动词，表示对过去事情进行肯定性的否定推测，意思为“不可能干/做”，“肯定没有做……”。
He couldn't have finished the homework in such a short time.
他不可能在如此短的时间内作完家庭作业。
should / shouldn't / ought to / ought not to + 完成时动词：
用于表示与过去事实相反的虚拟语气，意思为“应该做而未做 / 不应该做却做了”（参考“虚拟语气”章节）
I should have brought the wallet with me. 我该带上钱包的。
He oughtn't to have been complaining about such a trivial matter. 他不应该为这件小事而抱怨不休。
needn't + 完成时动词；表示做了不必要的事，意思是“原本不必”。注意与cannot / couldn't + 完成时动词 进行比较。
You needn't have told him the matter. 你其实不必告诉他这件事。
You couldn't have told him the matter. 你不可能把这件事告诉他了。
区别于 would + 动词完成时，用于与过去事实相反的虚拟语气，表示对过去事情的假设。（参考“虚拟语气”章节）
If I had enough money on me, I would have bought the book. 如果我带的钱够，我就把那本书买下来了。
例题：
(1)
A fish must constantly to gulp water in order to keep a current flowing through
A B
its delicate gills.
Ｃ Ｄ
答案：A
应改为：gulp.
解释：情态动词must之后用动词原形, 不能接不定式
(2)
Before the retina of the eye can be examined, the pupil must to be artificially dilated.
A B C D
答案：D
应改为：must be
解释：must是情态动词, 直接接动词原形, 而不能接不定式
the end. part 4 of 4 / [1] [2] [3] [4]作者: ask2008 时间: 2008-7-29 10:18
例题：
(1)
Long before children are able to speak or understand a language, ----communicate through facial expressions and by making noises.
(A) however
(B) they
(C) furthermore
(D) who
答案：B
解释：空白前分别是本句的从句和主句,主句中缺少主语, 只有B代词可独立作主语
(2)
Every individual cell, whether its exists as an independent microorganism or is part of a
A B
complex creature, has its own life cycle.
C D
(1) 宾格代词分别是：
第一人称：me, us（复数）
第二人称：you（单复同）
第三人称：him, her, it, them（复数）
例如：No one can jump over the channel except Mary and him (这里用宾格，而不能用he)
(2) 宾格代词在句中作动词或介词的宾语，改错题中常误用主格代词作宾语，应改为宾格
例如：I go out with her. (注意介词 with)
Most of us came from village. (注意介词of后面必须用宾格)
例题：
(1)
The texture of soil is determined by the size of the grains or particles that make up.
A B C D
答案：D
应改为：make it up
解释：make up是及物动词词组, 需要宾语, 依句意加上宾格代词it, 指代soil
(2)
Quails typically have short rounded wings that enable ---- spring into full flight instantly when disturbed in their hiding places.
(A) they
(B) to their
(C) its
(D) them to
例题：
(1)
Mammals lose body heat to them environment in cold weather more quickly than in
A B C D
hot weather.
答案: B
应改为: their
解释: 人称代词them不能修饰名词, 与其对应的物主代词their恰好作名词environment的限定词
二、名词性物主代词
名词性物主代词分别是：
第一人称：mine, ours（复数，我的东西，我们的东西）
第二人称：yours（单复同, 你的东西）
第三人称：his, hers, its, theirs（复数，它的东西，他们的东西）
名词性物主代词相当于名词可单独使用作句子的主语、表语或宾语。
例： These pencils are theirs. （这些铅笔是他们的）
This book are yours. Mine is over there. (yours 做宾语，Mine做主语)
例题
(1)
For years, elephants were hunted for food and ivory, and as a result theirs numbers
A B C
have been greatly reduced.
D
第三节 反身代词
反身代词主要有：
第一人称：myself, ourselves（复数）
第二人称：yourself, yourselves（复数）
第三人称：himself, herself, itself, themselves（复数）
还有一个oneself
1. 在TOEFL考试中，经常混淆反身代词的写法，结尾的-self和-selves经常故意写错
例题：
In Williamsburg, the capital of Virginia until 1780, people conducted themself much
A B C
like the gentry in London.
Ｄ
答案：C
应改为：themselves
2. 反身代词的用法
可以用来做宾语： He hurt himself when he fell.
可以用来做表语： He is not quite himself today. (他今天有些不舒服)
反身代词经常放在名词或者代名词的后面来进行强调, 表示“亲自”的意思
I myself do it.
I do it myself.
They made the research themselves.
但是不能够说：Himself does it. 应改为： He does it.
This is himself's book.. 应改为：This is his own book..
3．TOEFL考试中经常会出现反身代词用错的时候，其中最主要的是Oneself
例题：
The vanilla vine sends out tiny rootlets by which the vine attaches oneself to trees.
A B C D
答案： D
应改为：itself.
Oneself 往往要跟one对应，例如：
One should not livef for oneself alone.
4．反身代词常和一些介词连用组成一些惯用语，了解它们对做题和阅读都大有帮助
by oneself (单独、独自)
He said that he could do it by himself.
For oneself: 为了自己
第四节 不定代词
不定代词的用法区别在TOEFL中经常出现，这些区别对许多同学来讲比较容易混淆
一、比较both 和All
Both，either, neither都是在谈到两个人或者东西的时候用到
Both of them are right. (他们两个人都对)
You can take either book.(两本书你可以任意挑一本)
Neither of them is going to get haircut. (他们俩谁也不愿意理发)
All of the books are worth to read. (三本书以上)
None of them is going to get haircut. (them指三个人以上)
I like any of them. (them指三个人以上)
二、None 和no
None和no都用于否定的意思。但是None是“没有一个人或者没有一个东西”，在句子中可以用作主语、宾语、同位语等。而No是“没有”的意思，只能够当作形容词用，不能够作代词用。
None of them knew how to do it. (不能够说no of them)
No women are allowed to come in.
三、another, the other, others, the others
1．在涉及到两个人或者东西的时候，任意取一个用one, 另外那个用the other(表示特指)
I have two computers; one is IBM, the other is Dell.
2．涉及到三个以上时，任意取一个用one, 泛指另外一个用another
Three people went to the meeting. One was a software programmer, another was a network expert, and the third was a college student.
3．涉及到三个以上时，任意取一个用one, 表示特指其他的那些用the others或者用
the other+名词
Two of them go to Canada, the others go to America.
(他们中两个人去了加拿大，其他人去了美国)
Two of the students go to Canada, the other students go to America.作者: ask2008 时间: 2008-7-29 10:19
解题的步骤: 要求首先确定句子的主谓结构，根据缺少的成分对选项进行排除和筛选
例题：
(1)
Traditionally, ----in New England on Thanksgiving Day.
(A) when served is sweet cider
(B) when sweet cider is served
(C) is served sweet cider
(D) sweet cider is served
答案：D
解释：此句只给出时间和地点状语, 需填入完整的主语和谓语作为句子的主干, A B 只有when引导的从句没有主句; C 上来就是is, 没有主语; D 由名词词组sweet cider和serve的被动式构成主谓语, 使原句成为一个简单句
(2)
A historical novel may do more than mirror history; ----future events.
(A) even influencing
(B) it may even influence
(C) may even influence
(D) that it may even influence
答案：B
解释：分号可以连接两个语义并列的完整句子, 此句需填入一个主谓结构, 从而使分号后的句子完整. A不能作谓语, 且缺主语; C缺主语; D 构成从句, 无法与分号前的句子并列
3. 主语多由名词充当，还可能是代词、动名词、不定式等
如：He ran away. (此句中代词he是主语，ran away是谓语)
有的题目选项中无明显的主谓结构，往往需要考虑there be句式，严格的讲there be是倒装句，但由于它是固定句式，可视为主谓结构
如：There are a lot of monkeys in the zoo
考点二 谓语动词
一般说来能够决定句子的时态、语态、语气的词就是谓语动词，如：studies, was known, is reading, has achieved, must be, can make等形式的动词肯定是谓语；单独的分词、不定式都属于非谓语形式，如：broken, ringing, to look after
例句: Having thought for a while, she decided to forgive the man caught stealing her diamond.
此句中有四个动词结构，但只有decided是谓语形式，其他分别为分词作状语（having thought）、不定式作宾语(to forgive)、分词作定语(caught stealing)
3. 谓语专一原则
(1) 简单句中只允许存在一个谓语动词，其余动词必须是非谓语形式，如上面的例句。
英文中切忌：两个谓语形式的动词直接连接（尤其是be动词不能和实意动词连用，is do是绝不可能出现的），或以逗号连接
(2) 确实需要多个谓语时需用连词, 或主从句形式加以连接（分号也可）
如: She looked and smiled.
He will give you some advice; he may even help you do it.
(3) 值得注意的是并列句中的每个分句及主从句中的每个简单句仍需遵循谓语专一原则。
牢记这一原则才可准确地排除干扰选项，找出句中的致命错误
例题：
(1)
In a representative democracy, the people election delegates to an assembly.
A B C D
(3)
The edible tube mushroom ----a cushionlike, moist cap that is light brown or darkish red.
(A) which has
(B) to have
(C) having
(D) has
答案：D
解释：此句已给出主语和由定语从句修饰的宾语，缺少谓语动词，只有D可单独作谓语
考点三 表语
系动词be作谓语时，与之搭配的部分被称作表语，表语多由形容词、名词担当，也可是介宾短语、不定式、分词或动名词等
如：He is a doctor.
It's fantastic.
She was in hospital.
以上句子中a doctor, fantastic, in hospital就是表语
例题：
(1)
Quasars----emitting extremely intense radio waves and visible radiation.
(A) starlike objects are
(B) starlike, they are objects
(C) are starlike objects
(D) are they starlike objects
答案：C
解释：此句缺少谓语，C由系表结构组成，原句中的分词短语恰好作表语的定语。A B 与原句主语冲突，也不符合同位语的要求；D中they和starlike objects重复
(2)
Wherever there is plenty of rain during the growing season, life is ----in various forms.
(A) abundant
(B) the abundance
(C) an abundant
(D) it abundant
答案：A
解释：空格处需要is的表语，B不可数名词abundance之前不应加the；C少名词；D多代词it; A形容词，恰好作表语
第二节 状语
句子中除了主谓结构外，还可能包含表示时间、地点、方式等内容的状语，通常由副词、介宾短语来承当。
如：At night, I don't go out very often., 此句中at night, very often都是状语
例题：
(1)
----irritating effect on humans, the use of phenol as a general antiseptic has been largely discontinued.
(A) Its
(B) Where its
(C) Since its
(D) Because of its
答案：D
解释：此句主干完整, 主语是the use of phenol as a general antiseptic, 谓语是has been largely discontinued, 逗号之前应是状语. A构成名词短语, 与该句主语发生冲突; B、C欲构成从句, 但缺少从句的谓语动词; D恰好构成表示原因的状语, 短语because of 之后常接名词或动名词表原因, 如: He failed the exam because of his carelessness.
(2)
----a child, sculptor Anne Whitney showed an eager intellect and artistic talent that her parents recognized and encouraged.
(A) Has been
(B) It was while
(C) She was
(D) As
答案：D
解释：此句主干完整, 主语是sculptor, 谓语动词是showed, 之后是带有定语从句的宾语, 需填入状语. A、B、C 中的has been、was与showed相冲突, 违背谓语唯一原则. 介词词组As a child 相当于When she was a child.
(3)
.----, snakes frequently subdue their prey without injecting poison.
(A) Contrary to general belief
(B) General belief contrary to
(C) Belief contrary to general
(D) Contrary belief general to
答案：A
解释：给出部分是完整的句子, 从选项中可见此处缺少状语, be contrary to是固定词组, 表示“与……相反”, 介词to后需接宾语, 只有A符合上述条件
第三节 宾语
1. 若谓语动词是及物的，那么及物动词后面一定要接宾语。宾语大部分由名词和代词的宾格充当，也可是动名词、不定式等
如：He found a ladybird in his pencil-box.
I don't want to disturb you.
2. 宾语补足语
有相当一部分动词的宾语之后还需要补足语，宾语和补足语之间逻辑上是主谓关系，补足语可由名词、形容词、不定式等构成。
如：He found it necessary.
He asks me to help her.
TOEFL集中考的是make及make possible：
make的宾语之后多接形容词作补足语，如：make…clear, make…possible；也可接名词，如：make…a man, make…a doctor
make…possible的重考率较高，值得单独讲解，其实弄清了make possible的用法，也就不难举一反三了。
牢记make possible的三种形式：
1. make+名词+possible；
His financial aid makes this trip possible.
2. make+possible+名词（名词短语较长时）
His financial aid makes possible the poor Chinese student's entering of the world famous
university.
3. make it possible (for sb.)to do (见形式宾语部分)
The father's hard labor makes it possible for the son to receive better education.
例题：
(1)
A microphone enables a soft tone to be amplified, thus making it possible the gentle
A B C
renditions of romantic love songs in a large hall.
D
答案：C
应改为：making possible
解释：make possible已有名词宾语renditions, 无需用形式宾语it, 宾语因较长而置于possible之后
(2)
The United States Congress made Washington, D.C., ---- in 1800.
(A) after the government center
(B) of the government center
(C) the center of government
(D) then the center of government
答案：C
解释：空格处需要make的宾语Washington, D.C.的补足语，选项中只有C名词词组符合题意；D中的then是多余的
第四节 同位语
同位语一般接在名词或代词后，对其进行补充说明，结构上和之前的词并列，多是主语和宾语带有同位语，有时同位语为表示强调可提前到主语之前。同位语主要由名词充当
如：Let me introduce Miss Green, my next-door neighbor. (逗号后是同位语)
The famous American poet, Whitman, is best remembered for his collection entitled Leaves of Grass. (Whitman之前是同位语)
填空题中若除去空格部分是完整的主谓结构，且空格与句子其他部分之间用两个逗号完全隔开或用一个逗号隔开一边，则空格处需要填入同位语或定语
例题：
(1)
From 1946 to 1949, ----William Henry Hastie served as governor of the Virgin Islands.
(A) the lawyer
(B) he was the lawyer
(C) the lawyer who
(D) was the lawyer
(2)
The skyscraper, ----, is an architectural form that originated in the United States.
(A) is a tall commercial structure
(B) a tall commercial structure
(C) a tall commercial structure which
(D) of which a tall commercial structure
（3）
Plankton, ----, is the basic foodstuff for everything that lives in the ocean.
(A) comprise both minute marine animals and plants
(B) is the name given to minute marine animals and plants
(C) the collective name for minute marine animals and plants
(D) minute marine animals and plants collectively that
第八章并列句
由两个或两个以上互不依从的主谓结构构成的句子称为并列句，各并列分句间用and, but, so, or等连词连接，可以是并列、转折、因果、选择等关系
第一节 并列连词
一、并列连词
1. 最典型的并列连词有：and, but, or, so, yet, for
I have studied English for almost 12 years, yet my spoken English is still very poor.
I was going to the cinema, but I lost my way.
We cann't get there at time for we have been out of gas.
2. 固定搭配使用的并列连词：
not only…but (also), not only…but…(as well), both…and,
either…or, neither…nor, too…to,
such(…)as, the same….as, between…and
as well as(注意和副词as well相区别), (not) so…as
as… as, not so much A as B(与其说A不如说B)
so/such a … that
例句：
1. The Empire State Building, once America's tallest, is now surpassed by both the Sears Tower in Chicago and the World Trade Center in New York.
2. Clocks not only measure and tell time but also serve as decoration in homes and other buildings.
3. A jewel is an ornament fashioned from precious metals or stones, either alone or in combination.
4. The boy is too young to lift this box.
5. According to psychologists, a person's attentions is attracted not so much by the intensity of different signal as by their context, significance and information content.
并列连词的固定搭配是改错题的重要考点，因此上述搭配必须浑熟于心，
例题：
(1)
According to cognitive theories of emotion, anger occurs when individuals believe
A
have been harmed and that the harm was either avoidable and undeserved.
B C D
(2)
Providence, Rhode Island, is a busy manufacturing city and seaport, as well the
A B C
state capital.
Ｄ
答案：C
应改为：as well as the.
解释：as well as固定词组, 表示也……，as well也有此意, 但只能修饰动词, 多放在句尾
(3)
Too much electric current may flow into a circuit as a result either of a fault in the
A B Ｃ
circuit and of an outside event such as lightning.
Ｄ
答案：D
应改为：or
解释：either… or…为固定搭配, 表示或者, 或是.
第二节 平行结构
平行结构作为考点的出题率奇高，平均每套题中都有2-4道题目，因此必须引起高度重视。平行结构指的就是并列成分，不难理解和掌握。只要形成对and, or等词的敏感，牢记上面的固定搭配使用的并列连词(both…and, as well as 等)，一看到这些词就首先考虑平行结构，无论作填空还是改错都是行之有效的方法。
平行结构可能是并列的名词、形容词、不定式、动名词、谓语动词、分词等
例题：
(1)
During most of this century, A. Philip Randolph struggled for Black rights in the
A B
United States and becomes an important figure in the labor movement.
C D
答案：C
应改为：became.
解释：and连接两个并列谓语, 前者是过去时(struggled), 后者应相呼应使用过去式。
注意：在同一个时间背景下(本题中是During most of this century )，平行结构连接词所对应的动词必须采取一致的时态
(2)
Classicism as a doctrine seeks what is universally truth and good.
A B C D
(4)
It is more difficult to write simply, directly, and effective than to employ flowery
A B C
but vague expressions that only obscure one's meaning.
Ｄ
(5)
Lillian D. Wald, public health nurse and ----, was born in Cincinnati Ohio, in 1867.
(A) reforming society
(B) social reformer
(C) who reformed society
(D) her social reform
答案：B
解释：and连接的是主语Lillian D. Wald(人名)的两个并列同位语, public health nurse 是形容人的名词词组, 需填的部分应与其一致, A属分词词组, C属定语从句,D虽是名词词组, 中心词是reform,它们均不符合题意.
注意：平行结构连接词所连接的几个单位在结构上，形式上应该尽量一致，比如上题的
public health nurse and social reformer, 都是形容词修饰名词。 再如例题6
(6)
Western Nebraska generally receives less snow than eastern Nebraska is
A B C D
答案：D
应改为：Nebraska does
解释：题目中实际上是两个句子在用than连接进行比较， 它们比较的内容是receives the snow, 因此D中应该用does而不是is 来代替前面的receives
第三节 并列句中的省略
并列句中当后面的分句与前面有相同部分时可进行省略，以避免重复，省略时前后要尽量保证结构的平衡
如：I major in history and my brother in chemistry.
He was eager to win her heart, but didn't know how.
TOEFL中有少量题目涉及这一语言现象
例题：
(1)
The photoperiodic response of algae actually depends on the duration of darkness, ----.
(A) the light is not on
(B) and not on light
(C) but is not on the light
(D) is not on light
答案：B
解释：空格前是句子的主谓语, A, D可先排除；正确的搭配是depend on, 而不是is on, C也有误；B是省略了的并列句，相当于and does not depend on light, 符合语法
(2)
Nebraska has floods in some years, ----
(A) in others drought
(B) droughts are others
(C) while other droughts
(D) others in drought
答案：A
解释：空格前是完整的主谓句，逗号不能连接句子，故主谓结构B可先排除；C从句少谓语；D语义不明；A是简略的平行结构，相当于and drought in others (other years)
例如：如果先行词是the girl,表示人，则引导词应是who或whom或that, 从句谓语必须是第三人称单数形式；
She is the girl whom I saw in the zoo yesterday.
She is the girl who sells computer.
如果先行词是the goods, 则引导词是that或which, 从句谓语是第三人称复数形式
Do you get the photos that I sent last week.
例题：
(1)
A rocket burns propellant rapidly and most rockets carry a supply that last just a
A B C D
few seconds.
作从句主语的句子，如：
She's got a parrot that / which can speak “hello”.
He' the man who /that takes charge of this department.
Have you noticed the lady whose hair has gone grey?
作从句宾语的句子，如：
Is she the one (whom /that) you're looking for?(for之后不要加her)
Show me the book (that /which) you read just now.(read之后不要加it)
例题：
(1)
Jackie McLean's recordings have shown that he is one of the few jazz musicians
A
who style of playing has kept pace with the evolution of modern jazz.
B C D
答案：B
应改为：whose.
解释：who引导定语从句时, 不能同时修饰名词, 需改成whose
(2)
A hologram is a pattern usually made on film in that can create a three-dimensional
A B C
image of a scene.
D
答案：B
应改为：film that
解释：定语从句中缺少主语，应该用关系代词that单独引导
(3)
Hurricanes are severe cyclones with winds over seventy-five miles an hour who
A B C
originate over tropical ocean waters.
D
答案：C
应改为：which
解释：用于代替人的关系代词who不能指代winds, 应改为which
考点三 介词前置于关系代词
当关系代词作句中介词的宾语时，介词可以前置于关系代词，此时关系代词不能省略，而且只能用which或whom.
如：This is the road by which we came.
That is the man about whom we have heard so much.
注意：先行词为the way的定语从句中in which习惯上可以省略
This is the way (in which) I make the problem out.
例题：
(1)
And ideal is a standard ---- people judge phenomena.
(A) how
(B) of
(C) by which
(D) for it
(2)
In reorganizing the curriculum of Mt. Holyoke College in the late1800's Elizabeth Mead laid the foundation ---- the modern college rests.
(A) is which
(B) on which
(C) which is on
(D) on it
定语从句还可以由关系副词when, where或why引导，关系副词在从句中作时间、地点或原因状语
如：Have you ever been to the house where he used to live? (where=in which)
I could hardly forget the day when my uncle passed away. (when=on which)
Tell me the reason why I am fired. (why=for which)
例题：
(1)
The knee is the joint----the thigh bone meets the large bone of the lower leg.
(A) when
(B) where
(C) why
(D) which
(2)
Members of a nation's foreign service represent that country's interests abroad and
A B
report on the conditions, trends, and policies of the country which they are stationed.
C D
答案：D
应改为：country where they
解释：关系代词which未在从句中作任何成分，不符合语法，依句意应改为表地点的关系副词
考点五 定语从句类别
定语从句可分为限定性和非限定性两种，其主要区别为：
1. 非限定性定语从句中，引导词和先行词之间需用逗号隔开。
2. 非限定性定语从句中，引导词一般不用that，
在修饰人时用who, whom, whose
He had three children, all of whom had graduated from college.
在修饰物时用 which
3. 限定性定语从句是句子不可或缺的部分，去掉会造成句意不清；而非限定性定语从句只是补充说明的作用，有无对句意影响不大，翻译时常译作独立的句子，而不是定语
对比下列句子：
He refused to reveal the man who had beaten him black and blue. (man是特定的)
I no longer live in Beijing, where air pollution did great harm to my health.
(Beijing是众所周知的，无需限定，若限定则意味着世界上有不止一个北京)
一、that 引导的宾语从句
that引导的宾语从句最为普遍，从句应是完整的主谓结构，且that有时可以省略，
如：She told me (that) she had bought a gift for me.
I hope that it will be cooler tomorrow.
常接此类宾语从句的动词有：say, think, hope, tell, see, deny, demand, suggest, propose, declare, feel, intend, insist, believe, agree, admit, expect, explain, imagine, know, report, doubt等
I doubt that he has the ability to do this.
二、what, where, when, which, who, why,
how等词引导的宾语从句
宾语从句还可由上述类似特殊疑问词的引导词引出，此时引导词作从句的主语、宾语、或状语，不可以省略
如：I can't understand why you feel so bitter about her manners.
Could you explain what has caused the delay?
I wonder how you managed to escape.
Just tell me which one you prefer.
此类从句的形式颇像问句，但需注意应用陈述句语序，不可倒装
三、whether /if 引导的宾语从句
whether / if引导的从句，表示“是否….”，whether /if虽不在从句中担当成分，但因有实际意思，不可省略，之后的从句必须是完整的主谓结构
如：I wonder if /whether you are interested in his paintings.
I can't decide whether I should go or not. (此时不能用if)
注：有些be+形容词的句式结构类似于宾语从句，可归入此类，如：
I am sure that he will come before long.
I'm afraid (that) you are not allowed to enter without a pass.
例题：
(1)
Almost all economists agree ----by trading with one another.
(A) nations that are gained
(B) nations they gain
(C) gaining nations
(D) that nations gain
(2)
Today it is generally recognized as the primary function of the Federal Reserve
A B
System is to foster the flow of credit and money that will eventually facilitate a
C D
balance in international payments.
答案：B
应改为：that.
解释：介词as无法连接两个主谓句，应用关系连词连接，构成宾语从句
(3)
A biologist does not merely describe organisms, but tries to learn ----act as they do.
(A) what causes them to
(B) causes them to what
(C) what to cause them
(D) what cause to them
1. 时间状语从句
主要引导词：when, whenever, before, after, until, while, since, once, so long as, as soon as, the moment, every time, as, next time
I will call you after I get to the company.
I don't call her until I get to the company.
Every time I feel lonely, she comes to talk to me.
2. 地点状语从句
主要引导词：where, wherever
Wherever you go, I will be right here waiting for you.
3. 原因状语从句
主要引导词：because, as, since, considering that, now that, not that, seeing that
注意：in that是书面语中原因状语从句的引导词，相当于because, 在填空题中曾经出现
Now that it is raining, we'd better cancal the meeting.
4. 目的状语从句
主要引导词：so that, in order that, for fear that, in case, lest
5. 结果状语从句
主要引导词：so…that, so that, such…that
注意：so…that句式和too…to句式的区别是重要考点之一，so…that接从句；too…to接不定式
The old lady is so generous that a lot of people admire her.
She is too young to resist it.
6. 条件状语从句
主要引导词：if, unless, in case, so long as, on condition (that), provided (that)
7. 让步状语从句
主要引导词：though, although, no matter, even if, even though, however, whatever
注意though, although等都不能够与but连用
例题：
(1)
Anthropology is a science ----anthropologists use a rigorous set of methods and techniques to document observations that can be checked by others.
(A) in that
(B) that in
(C) that
(D) in
答案：A
解释：空白处前后均是完整的主谓句, 意思上后者是对前者的解释说明, 推知需填入从句引导词, in that是一特殊的状语从句引导词, 表示原因, 与此句意思吻合
(2)
Gorillas are quiet animals, ----they are able to make about twenty different sounds.
(A) how
(B) in spite of
(C) because of
(D) even though
部分状语从句可以省略，在填空题中时有出现
如：Although defeated, he did not lose heart. (从句中省略了he was)
If informed timely, I wouldn't have missed the meeting. (从句中省略了I were)
例题：
(1)
----relatively costly, the diesel engine is highly efficient and needs servicing infrequently
(A) Even
(B) It is
(C) Even though
(D) There is
答案：C
解释：逗号后是完整的句子, 缺少的可能是从句或状语的一部分, B、D是主谓结构, 肯定不对; A 是副词, 为甚至之意, 放在原句中讲不通; C 是尽管的意思, 实际上省略了状语从句的主谓语it is, 符合题意. 还需注意的是costly是形容词而不是副词
(2)
Although ---- rigid, bones exhibit a degree of elasticity that enables the skeleton to withstand considerable impact.
(A) apparently
(B) are apparently
(C) apparently their
(D) are they apparently
答案：A
解释：although是让步状语从句引导词，空格处需要从句的主谓语，B缺少主语，D不应倒装，可先排除；their不能修饰形容词rigid，B也可排除；A是从句的省略式，相当于Although they are apparently rigid
第四节 同位语从句
句子的同位语多由名词短语充当，但少数词之后可接由that引导的从句作同位语，此时需和定语从句相区别，同位语从句中that不在从句中承担成分，而且不可省略
如：I was disillusioned by the fact that he had deserted us for ever.
The idea that man is inferior to animals is quite unacceptable.
可接同位语从句的名词有：fact, reason, idea, news, hope, doubt, belief, proof等
例题：
(1)
Astronomy developed from the observation ---- through regular cycles of motion.
(A) going to heavenly bodies
(B) the heavenly bodies going
(C) heavenly bodies that go
(D) that the heavenly bodies go
mical vapors to base metals they
A B C
could create gold.
D
答案：A
应改为：that.
解释：从句表达的是idea的内容, 且idea在从句中不作成分, 因此确定此处不是定语从句, 而是同位语从句, 应用that引导
词汇：alchemist: 炼金术士
第五节 主语从句和表语从句
主语从句和表语从句都是名词性从句，与宾语从句的分类、语法规则基本相同。
主语从句如：
That she has gone insane is sheer rumor.
Whoever says it must be a fool.
Whether you are innocent or not remains a question.
表语从句如：
The problem is that you have lost your way.
That's how we got to know the truth.
My major concern is whether you agree or not.
例题：
(1)
---- xenon could not form chemical compounds was once believed by scientists.
(A) For
(B) It was
(C) That
(D) While
(2)
---- has been a topic of continual geological research.
(A) Did the continents originate
(B) How did the continents originate
(C) Have the continents originated
(D) How the continents originated
(3)
In her time, Isadora Duncan was----today a liberated woman.
(A) calling what we would
(B) who would be calling
(C) what we would call
(D) she would call it
第十章时态
英语和汉语的显著区别之一就是英语有时态之分，不同的时态通过谓语动词、助动词的不同形式, 以及句中的时间状语来体现。TOEFL最常考的两种时态是现在完成时和一般过去时.
第一节 现在完成时
现在完成时的形式可概括为：have /has (用于第三人称单数) done /been
如：She's just gone out.
They have already finished the task.
I haven't met him recently
Has he told you about the accident?
现在完成时用于表示说话之前已发生的动作但对现在仍有影响，或是由过去某点延续至说话时的动作，完成时有一些标志性的时间状语，如：already, yet, just, ever, since, for，so far, up to now, in the past years等
TOEFL考试中改错题的考察重点是since, 如句中有since引导的时间状语，相应的谓语动词必然是现在完成时，反之要注意句中的时间状语是否符合完成时的要求，若不符，大多改为since
例题：
(1)
Almanacs in simple form have been known from the invention of writing.
A B C D
答案：B
应改为：since.
解释：此句是现在完成时，应用标志词since表示“自从”的意思
(2)
Gore Vidal has steadily pursue a literary career remarkable for its productivity,
A B C
versatility, and unpredictability.
D
注意: 当现在完成时的时间状语是for + 一段时间(已经有…时间了), 和since + 一个时间点(自从…以来)的时候, 句中的谓语不能是非延续性动词(暂短性动词), 如不能说:
I have borrowed the book for ten days. (错误: borrow这个动作是发生在图书出纳台上的一次性动作, 不能延续, 因此不能和for引导的时间状语连用)
应改为: I have kept the book for ten days.
这样的暂短性动词还有: buy/sell, break, die, graduate, drop等.
第二节 一般过去时
一般过去时的基本特征是谓语动词使用过去式（was /were /did），主要用于表示过去发生的事情，如：
She used to play tennis every week.
When did you go to bed last night?
Was he on the spot?
一般过去时的标志词为表示过去的时间状语，如：
ago, last year, yesterday, just now, at first, in the end, in 1887等
例题：
(1)
How many people remember listening to Orson Welles' 1938 radio broadcast,
A B C
“The War of the Worlds,” Which convince thousands that space aliens had invaded
D
the Earth?
(2)
The metal aluminum has been first isolated early in the nineteenth century.
A B C D
答案：B
应改为：was.
解释：时间状语early in the nineteenth century 意味着此句是一般过去时
第三节 其他重要时态
一、一般现在时
一般现在时用于表示经常往复的动作或自然现象、客观事实等，其难点在于主语是第三人称单数时，谓语动词（be除外）结尾需加-s, 其变化规则和名词变复数一样。而且句子的否定式、疑问式需借助do, does. 此时态的标志词有：often, always, never, usually, every day等
如: He often plays tennis after school.
The moon moves around the earth every day.
二、现在进行时
现在进行时主要用于描述说话时正在进行的动作，基本形式为：be doing，其标志词为：now, right now, at the moment等.
如: At the moment the representatives are discussing the current international affairs.
The water is boiling.
三、现在完成进行时
现在完成进行时是进行时和完成时的组合，即：have /has been doing，主要强调从过去一直持续到现在仍在进行的动作
如: The orchestra have been rehearsing since this morning.
The child has been crying since his mother left.
四、过去进行时
过去进行时表示在过去的某一时间正在发生的动作，基本形式：was /were doing, 标志形时间状语有: 10 o'clock yesterday evening, last night等, 另外当从句是表示过去时间的时间状语从句时, 主句中动词常用过去进行时, 表示“当…的时候, …正在做…”.
如: What were you doing 8 o'clock yesterday morning?
I was working on the last question when the teacher asked us to turn in our papers.
五、过去完成时
现在完成时表示在说话(现在)之前发生的动作, 而过去完成时强调在过去某个时间点之前发生的事件，基本形式：had been/ done, 其标志性的时间状语有: by (before) 12 o'clock last night等, 或者当主句的动作发生在从句之前, 而从句的谓语又是过去时时.
如: He had finished his work by (before) 9 o'clock yesterday evening.
I had tried this brand of ice cream before you introduced it to me.
六、一般将来时
一般将来时用于表示将来即将发生的动作，基本形式：shall /will do, 或be going to do, 其标志性时间状语有: tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, the next week, the next year等.
如: The play will be on show the next week.
How are we going to spend the next ten hours?
七、过去将来时
过去将来时用于表示相对于过去某一时间点将发生的动作，基本形式：should /would do, 多用在表示过去时间的上下文中.
如: She asked what she should do to please her parents.
The farmer concluded that it was going to rain soon.
例题：
(1)
A citadel, a fortress designed for the defense of a city, usually standed on top of a hill.
A B C D
第十一章一致原则
一致原则贯穿英语语法，在前面各个章节中已有涉及，本章作为对前面的补充，集中讲TOEFL题中常考的问题
第一节 主谓一致
主谓一致指的是主语和谓语在数上要保持一致. 在英语除了时态的变化外，名词、动词的数也有差别，这就要求主语（以名词为代表）和谓语（包括助动词）在数上要一致
如：
1. 在名词+of+名词这种结构中, 前一个名词是整个短语的中心词, 当该短语作主语时，一般以of之前名词的数为依据确定谓语的数.
one of 之后需接复数名词，但one of+名词作主语时中心词是one，故谓语应用单数
One of my students wins the game.
例题：
One of the wildest and most inaccessible parts of the United States are the
A B C
everglades where wildlife is abundant and largely protected.
D
2. 由and连接的多个名词作主语，谓语动词应用复数
Career and love are important to me.
Jim, John and Mary are playing football.
但是如果用and连接起来表示单一的概念时，谓语动词要用单数
The famous singer and actress, Whitney Huston is coming to the ceremony.
(在这里, singer和actress指得是同一人, 都是Whitney Huston)
例题：
(1)
The novel or short story are the literary forms most typically called fiction.
A B C D
(2)
Magnificent mountains and coastal scenery is British Columbia's chief tourist
A B C D
attractions.
答案：C
应改为：are
解释：主语mountains and scenery是复数，谓语应保持一致，改为复数are
3. 不可数名词，尤其是抽象名词(relation, authority, necessity, power, democracy, young等)作主语时要视为单数，谓语自然也要用单数
The relation between us is very simple.
例题
Nearly 75 percent of the land of the Canadian province of British Columbia are
A B C D
covered by forests.
答案：D
应改为：is
解释：主语land是不可数名词，应视为单数，谓语应保持一致，改为is
4. 单个从句作主语时，谓语用单数
That she has gone insane is sheer rumor.
When they will come hasn't been made public.
5. 如果主语是单数，那么即使后面有with/ together with/ along with/accompanied by, no less than, like, but, except, including, besides等引导的短语，谓语动词仍然要是用单数
例如：The boy, together with his parents, goes to the cinema today.
No one except the two boys knows how to solve this problem.
6. 由Not A but B, Not only A but also B, either A or B, neither A nor B引导的主语，谓语通常和最邻近的主语相一致
Either you or Mary hurts her.
Neither my wife nor I myself am able to persuade my daughter to change her mind.
Not you but he is tired of typing.
Not only the students but also the teacher is going to be blamed.
7.在there be句型、介词短语、副词为句首引起的倒装句中，真正的主语通常在谓语的后面，谓语应该和后面的主语在数方面相一致。
但是在there be 句型中，如果有两个或者两个以上的主语，必须和最接近他的那个主语相一致。
There are a lot of books on the table.
There is only one pencil, two books and one cup on the table.
Many a time has he given us good advice.
例题：
(1)
The first libraries in the North American colonies was established in Massachusetts
A B C
in the year 1638
D
答案：A
应改为：library.
解释：谓语部分是单数形式, 主语需与其一致
(2)
The ritual combat of animals are triggered by precise signals.
A B C D
1．通常当主句中的时态是现在时或将来时态时，从句中的动词时态并不受影响，往往还是根据从句的意思而定。
I know that he will come tomorrow.
I know that he has finished reading this book.
I know that he went to school yesterday.
2. 当主句中的时态是过去时态,那么从句中的时态要作一定的变化
I knew that he would come tomorrow. (现在将来时变为了过去完成时)
I knew that he had finished reading this book. (现在完成时过去完成时)
I was told that he was free today. (现在时态变为过去时态)
例题：
(1)
Industrial buyers are responsible for supplying the goods and services that an
A B C
organization required for its operations.
D
在改错题中，确定代词的先行词是解题的关键，主要是依靠句意来判断，还需留意下列情况：
1. 反身代词需和所在主谓结构的主语一致，若不一致应改为宾格形式
如：Her mother helped her solve the problem.
此句中helped之后若用herself则指的是her mother, 语义不同
2. 在主从句中，或有分词状语的句子中，代词所代替的对象有可能在其后出现，要准确识别
如：After she entered the room, Mary flung herself to the bed.
此句中she指代的是主句中的Mary
例题：
(1)
Researchers at the University of Colorado are investigating a series of indicators
A B
that could help themselves to predict earthquakes.
C D
(2)
The Earth's magnetic poles are not stationary, but slowly shift its position.
A B
答案：D
应改为：their position
解释：poles是复数，不能用its代替，应改为复数代词their
第十二章倒装
倒装句就是将正常的陈述语序加以变化，主要作用是强调被提前的部分
倒装句可分为全部倒装和部分倒装两种：
一、全部倒装
谓语动词提前至主语之前为全部倒装，如：
Out came his guest.
On the hill stood a little cottage that contained heaps of hay.
There lived an elderly lady whose husband died long ago.
二、部分倒装
助动词或情态动词提至主语之前，谓语动词位置不变，即为部分倒装，如：
Neither could he see through your plan.
So little did I know about him that I was easily taken in by his words.
Doesn't her invitation appeal to you?
第一节 否定词提前倒装
否定词用于句首时，句子应进行部分倒装
否定词常用的有：
Not only…(but also), Not until(直到…..才),
No sooner….(than)(一…..就) Never/ Rarely/Seldom
Hardly/Scarcely… (when) Few/Little
Neither/Nor (也不) Nwhere
At no time Under no circumstances(决不)
On no account (决不) In no way
其中not only, no sooner, hardly, scarcely 分别和but (also), than, when搭配使用，需注意：后一组词之后的部分不进行倒装，只有否定词之后的部分倒装
如：Hardly had I arrived home when it began to rain.
Not only was he able to enter the final round of the contest, but he came out first as well.
No sooner had I got any chance to speak than the clerk slammed the door in my face.
Seldom does he travel about.
Under no circumstances should you betray your own country.
此类倒装句一般出现在填空题中，需填入的是倒装部分，只要在句首见到上述的词，就应条件反射的想到用倒装句
例题：
(1)
---- was the first fully successful transatlantic cable finally laid.
(A) Not until 1866
(B) Until 1866, just
(C) Until 1866
(D) In 1866, not until
答案：A
解释：由被动式was laid被名词短语分割开可知, 此句是个部分倒装句, 选项中只有A否定词提前可引导倒装句, 1866应是until的宾语, 故D不对; 此句正常语序应为: The first fully successful transatlantic cable was not finally laid until 1866.
(2)
Not until 1931 ---- the official anthem of the United States.
(A) “The Star-spangled Banner” did become
(B) when “The Star-spangled Banner” became
(C) did “The Star-spangled Banner” become
(D) became “The Star-spangled Banner”
答案：C
解释：否定词not放在句首引起部分倒装，只有C符合倒装语序
第二节 介词、分词词组提前倒装
当句子没有宾语，且主语偏长时，往往将句中作状语的介词短语或作表语的形容词短语或作表语的分词短语提至句首，引起主谓的全部倒装
如：In the middle of the river floated the cluster of plants that she had cast.
Characteristic of an anarchist was her strong opposition to the government, which she had blamed for all the social injustices.
Lying on the grassland is a pretty girl in her early twenties.
例题：
(1)
Typical of the grassland dwellers of the continent ----, or pronghorn.
(A) it is the American antelope
(B) the American antelope is
(C) is the American antelope
(D) the American antelope
答案：C
解释：此句为形容词短语be typical of作表语前置引起的完全倒装句, 空白处缺少的实为倒装的主语和谓语动词, A B未倒装, 可首先排除; D无动词, 也可排除. 此句正常语序应为: The American antelope, or pronghorn, is typical of the grassland dwellers of the continent.
(2)
The glaciers that reached the Pacific Coast were valley glaciers, and between those tongues of ice ----that allowed the original forests to survive.
(A) that many sanctuaries were
(B) were many sanctuaries
(C) were there many sanctuaries
(D) there the many sanctuaries
答案：B
解释：and是并列句的连接词，逗号前是分句一，and后是分句二. 因分句二中between引导的介词短语提前，空格处需要分句二倒装的主谓语，D无谓语，可先排除；A使原句只有从句无主句; C中there是多余的，只能选B
第三节 副词提前倒装
副词提至句首引起倒装，可分以下几种情况：
1. only + 副词(when, before, if, after等)
或only+介词状语(由in, under, by, on, after等引导)提前，必须部分倒装
如：Only then did he realize how stupid he had been.
Only after entering the store did Arthur realize that there was danger.
Only in the library can she concentrate on her study.
2. often, such, so等副词提前，部分倒装
如: So diligently did he work that he got hight scores on the final exam.
=He worked so diligently that he got hight scores on the final exam.
Such was his wish that the world would stay away from war forever.
Often did we go on a holiday in hot summer.
注意，so的另一种倒装是表示“也…”
California relies heavily on income from crops, and so does Florida.
加利福尼亚过多的依赖于来自农作物的收入，佛罗里达也是这样
同理，体会一下neither, nor的倒装
He can't dance, neither/nor can I.= I can't, either.
他不会跳舞，我也不会。
3. in, out, down, up, away, off, here, there, over等副词提前，全部倒装
如：Off got the staggering gentlemen.
Here are the photos I took at the seaside.
例题：
(1)
As inevitably as human culture has changed with the passing of time, so does the
A B C D
environment.
(2)
Only outside the Earth's atmosphere ---- to attain extremely high velocities.
(A) to be safe for a space vessel
(B) is it safe for a space vessel
(C) for a space vessel to be safe
(D) a space vessel to be safe
答案：B
解释：副词only引导状语放在句首时，句子需要部分倒装，只有B符合题意
第四节 疑问倒装
疑问句需部分倒装语序，由于经常用到不会成为考试的难点。
如：What part did he play in Hamlet?
Do you prefer tea or coffee?
例题：
(1)
Of the millions who saw Haley's comet in 1986, how many people----long enough to see it return in the twenty-first century.
(A) will they live
(B) they will be living
(C) will live
(D) living
答案：C
解释：此句是how many 引导的疑问句, 缺少倒装的谓语部分, 但因主语people已出现在句首疑问词之后, 不需要再进行主谓倒装. A B 中的they是people的重复, 没有必要; D 不能单独作谓语作者: ask2008 时间: 2008-7-29 10:20
第十三章被动语态
被动语态是相对主动语态而言，表示被动的句式，其基本结构为：be + 动词过去分词
第一节 与主动态的显著区别
被动语态与主动语态在形式上的特征是选择使用哪一种语态的必备常识，也是解题的法宝。
1. 被动语态中谓语动词必须是及物动词
2. 被动语态中谓语动词之后绝大多数不能再接宾语
只有少数可接双宾语的动词，如：consider, give, call, name等，
例如：She was considered a genius in painting.
He was called a hero.
The ship was named Queen Elizabeth.
改错题中，若在被动句里, 动词(上面提到的接双宾语的动词除外)的被动式之后出现宾语，则此处必有错误，可改为主动句；同样，在主动句中, 若及物动词后没有宾语，也必定有误，可改为被动句
例题:
(1)
Clementine Hunter's primitive paintings have been exhibited at various galleries,
A B C
included one at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C.
D
答案：D
应改为：including
解释：被动式included之后不能接宾语，including是一个介词, 意思是“包括”
3. by可视为被动语态的标志词，by之后的名词短语是句中动作的施动者；在题干中若见到by+名词的结构要优先考虑用被动式
如: The wall is painted by Tom.
The book was written by Mark Twain.
注意1：by之后如果接的是动名词，则表示方式、手段，不能视为被动式的标志，且此时谓语应用主动式，
如：He passed the exam by cheating.
注意2：对于know来讲，一般用be known to 而不用be know by
例题：
(1)
People have always fascinated by the parrot's colorful feathers and its ability to mimic
A B C
human speech.
D
答案：A
应改为：always been fascinated
解释：by引导被动语态的施动者，谓语应用被动式
(2)
The seating of musicians in an orchestra is arranged ----to produce the desired blend of sounds from the various musical sections.
(A) the conductor of
(B) from the conductor
(C) the conductor and
(D) by the conductor
答案：D
解释：若不要空白处的话, 此句亦很完整, 可清楚的看出空后的不定式短语表目的, 那末可能填入的是arrange的施动者, 自然应该用by来引导；A of不能接不定式; C 不能在被动式后面接宾语
(3)
According to some theories derived from psychoanalysis, life is supposedly easier
A B C
and more pleasant when inhibitions overcoming.
D
答案：D
应改为：are overcome..
解释：根据意思由when引导的状语从句中inhibitions和overcome应为被动关系, overcoming是表主动的现在分词形式, 而限制不可能自行克服, 故改作过去分词
第二节 被动语态的不同时态
被动语态由助动词be加过去分词构成，它也会有不同的时态，其时态主要通过助动词be来表现。其中对过去进行时的表示方法需留意
如：The potatoes are being peeled in the machine.
She was being questioned by the police.
其它时态举例：
The table has just been cleaned. （现在完成时）
His passport had been changed without his notice. （过去完成时）
The press conference will be held in three weeks. （一般将来时）
例题：
(1)
Experiments in the photography of moving objects ----in both the United States and Europe well before 1900.
(A) have been conducting
(B) were conducting
(C) had been conducted
(D) being conducted
答案：C
解释：此句缺少谓语, conduct是及物动词, 后若无宾语应是被动式, A B 首先被排除, D分词不能单独作谓语
(2)
Conservative philosophers argue that the very structure of society is threatening by
A B
civil disobedience, while humanists stress the primacy of the individual conscience.
C D
第十四章常考关于It的句式
代词it在英文中有着特殊的地位，它不仅可代表时间、天气、距离等特定概念，如:
It's raining heavily.
It's two o'clock in the afternoon.
而且, it还可作形式主语, 形式宾语，构成强调句，可谓威力无穷
第一节 形式主语句
作为形式主语的it并无实际语义，只是为满足语法上的需要，避免句子头重脚轻，它代替的是句子的逻辑主语，概括起来会有如下情况：
1. 句子的逻辑主语为不定式
如：It is very kind of you to give me a hand in time.
It is my pleasure to address the meeting.
It was pretty hard for him to bring up the child on his own.
2. 句子的逻辑主语为从句
如：It so happened that the tickets were sold out.
It is extremely obvious that she has been lying about her identity.
It suddenly occurred to me that the message must have been hidden between the layers of the briefcase.
3. 句子的逻辑主语为动名词短语
这类句子远不如前面两种出现率高，主要在（no good, waste, useless, no use, dangerous）等词语的后面用
如：It is no use reasoning with him.
It is no good reading in dim light.
例题：
(1)
Sometimes----to place physics and chemistry into separate categories.
(A) difficult
(B) is difficult
(C) it is difficult
(D) that it is difficult
答案：C
解释：给出部分是不定式短语, 缺主谓结构, A B都不完整, D 是从句形式, 只有C 包含形式主语it及谓语is difficult
(2)
In 1938, when Benny Goodman's orchestra presented a concert at the prestigious Carnegie Hall, ---- was clear that jazz had at last been fully accepted.
(A) there
(B) which
(C) and
(D) it
第二节 强调句
强调句中it作形式主语可以替代任何被强调的部分
基本模式：It + be + 强调对象 + who/ whom/that + 句子其余部分
如：It was only you who cared for me. (强调主语)
It is his sister whom /that I have fallen in love with. (强调宾语)
It was under the tree that she found her missing purse. (强调地点状语)
It was last week that I attended an art exhibit for the first time. (强调时间状语)
It was not until he broke my favorite vase that I flew into rages. (强调状语从句)
注意：强调的对象是人时，可用who, whom或that, 其余情况一律用that; 当强调对象在从句中做主语时用who/that, 当强调对象在从句中做宾语时用whom/that.
例题：
(1)
In bacteria and in other organisms, ---- is the nucleic acid DNA that provides the genetic information.
(A) both
(B) which
(C) and
(D) it
答案：D
解释：空格前是状语，空格后是典型的强调句式，空格处需要形式主语it, 只能选D
(2)
---- who was the first Black woman to run for the office of President of the United States in 1972.
(A) Shirley S. Chisholm
(B) It was Shirley S. Chisholm
(C) Shirley S. Chisholm was
(D) When Shirley S. Chisholm
第三节 形式宾语
在“动词+宾语+宾语补足语”结构中，当宾语是不定式、从句或动名词时，需用it作形式宾语接在动词之后，将逻辑宾语移至补足语之后
注意: 常接it做形式宾语的动词有: find, think, make, feel, deem, consider等.
如：His cooperation made it possible for us to fulfill the demands of our clients.
She decided to make it clear that she would never yield to authority.
I believe it no use crying over spilt milk.
例题：
(1)
Variables such as individual and corporate behavior ----nearly impossible for economists to forecast economic trends with precision.
(A) make
(B) make it
(C) it makes
(D) makes it
(2)
Using many symbols makes ---- to put a large amount of information on a single map.
(A) possible
(B) it possible
(C) it is possible
(D) that possible
一、对现在事实的虚拟
基本形式：If + were /did等过去式…, …would /could /should /might + do
例如：If I were a bird, I would fly to the moon.
(事实上，I'm not a bird, so I will not fly to the moon.)
If she knew who you are, she would go out of joy.
(事实上，She doesn't know, so she still feels joyous.)
二、对过去事实的虚拟
基本形式：If + had done…, …would /could / should /might + have done
例如：If she had been warned earlier, she wouldn't have broken the rules.
(事实上：She was not warned earlier and she broke the rules.)
If it hadn't rained, the match would have seemed more fascinating.
(事实上：It rained and the match was less fascinating.)
此种虚拟可进行倒装，如：
Had the letter been sent out, it would have ruined our friendship.
= If the letter had been sent out, it would have ruined our friendship.
三、对将来事实的虚拟
基本形式：If + should do…, …would /could /should /might + do; 意思类似汉语中的“万一”
例如：If he should forget the date, I might teach him a good lesson.
(事实上：他不大可能忘记那个日期)
If it should snow this afternoon, we could make a snowman.
(事实上不大可能会下雪)
此种虚拟可倒装，如：
Should my car fail, I would have to return home on foot.
= If my car should fail, I would have to return home on foot.
注意1：部分动词的宾语从句中需用虚拟语气，形式为should do, 其中should常被省略。
此类动词有：insist, demand, suggest, propose, order, require, decide, ask, request等.
例句： We all insist that we (should) not rest until we finish the work.
The professor suggests that the students (should) collect enough materials before they work on this project.
上面的动词如果以名词形式出现时，后面的that从句仍然要采用虚拟语气
He gives me the suggestion that I (should) eat breakfast every moning.
注意2：在一些惯用语之后经常需要用虚拟，来表示与事实相反或者难以实现的事情
这类习语有： as if , as though, but for, otherwise, without, wish, if only等
例句： But for your help, I would not have arrived here in time.
(如果没有你的帮助，我就不能准时到达)
Without your help, I would not arrive here in time.
注意3：在下列形容词引导的that从句中必须要用虚拟语气(should) do，但是由于should经常被省略，所以实际上用的就是动词原形。
这类形容词有: It is important/ necessary/ proper/ imperative/ essential/ advisable等 + that
例句：It is necessary that he (should) realize his situation.
例题：
(1)
Abraham Lincoln insisted that ---- not just on
mere opinion but on moral purpose.
(A) to base democracy
(B) for democracy to be based
(C) democracy be based
(D) whenever democracy is based
